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Ship - Maritime, Navigation, Exploration | Britannica
Ship - Maritime, Navigation, Exploration | Britannica
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ship
Table of Contents
ship
Table of Contents
IntroductionNaval architectureHydrostaticsStatic stabilityDynamic stabilityDamage buoyancy and stabilityShip hydrodynamicsDesign of the hullDetermination of propulsive power by model testingShip maneuvering and directional controlShip motions in response to the seaStructural integrityPropulsion and auxiliary machineryDieselCombinations of machineryGas turbine and nuclear powerElectric drive and integrated machinery plantsTypes of shipsService vesselsMiscellaneousIndustrial shipsPassenger carriersCruise shipsFerriesCargo carriersTankersContainer shipsBarge-carrying shipsRoll-on/roll-off shipsDry-bulk shipsGeneral cargo shipShip operationBusiness aspectsThe tramp tradeThe liner tradeThe captive fleetRegulationInternational conventionsShip classificationCrewingMaintenanceRepairing marine damageMaintaining machineryCargo handlingShip-shore transferHandling aboard shipHistory of shipsOars and sailsEarly rowed vesselsSailing shipsTypes of sailsAsian shipsEarly oceanic navigation15th-century ships and shipping17th-century developmentsShipping in the 19th centuryMachine-powered shipsThe early age of steamshipsThe steamboatEarly examplesFulton’s steamboatCommercial steam navigationOceanic navigationThe first Atlantic crossings“The Atlantic Ferry”Passenger liners in the 20th centuryCargo ships
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ship summary
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History of ships Surviving clay tablets and containers record the use of waterborne vessels as early as 4000 bce. Boats are still vital aids to movement, even those little changed in form during that 6,000-year history. The very fact that boats may be quite easily identified in illustrations of great antiquity shows how slow and continuous had been this evolution until just 150 years ago. And though that was the time when steam propulsion became predominant, it never was anywhere universal in local transport. Because some solutions to the problem of providing water transport were eminently successful and efficient several millennia ago, there are a number of boats still in use whose origins are lost in prehistory. Oars and sails Early rowed vessels Egyptian jarJar with boat designs, painted pottery from Egypt, c. 3450–3350 bce; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York. 17.6 x 20.9 cm.(more)The earliest historical evidence of boats is found in Egypt during the 4th millennium bce. A culture nearly completely riparian, Egypt was narrowly aligned along the Nile, totally supported by it, and served by transport on its uninterruptedly navigable surface below the First Cataract (at modern-day Aswān). There are representations of Egyptian boats used to carry obelisks on the Nile from Upper Egypt that were as long as 300 feet (100 metres), longer than any warship constructed in the era of wooden ships. ancient Egyptian papyrusAn ancient Egyptian papyrus showing a boat on the Nile River.(more)The Egyptian boats commonly featured sails as well as oars. Because they were confined to the Nile and depended on winds in a narrow channel, recourse to rowing was essential. This became true of most navigation when the Egyptians began to venture out onto the shallow waters of the Mediterranean and Red seas. Most early Nile boats had a single square sail as well as one level, or row, of oarsmen. Quickly, several levels came into use, as it was difficult to maneuver very elongated boats in the open sea. The later Roman two-level bireme and three-level trireme were most common, but sometimes more than a dozen banks of oars were used to propel the largest boats. Egyptian shipDrawing of an Egyptian seagoing ship, c. 2600 bce, based on vessels depicted in the bas-relief discovered in the pyramid of King Sahure at Abū Ṣīr, Cairo.(more)Navigation on the sea began among Egyptians as early as the 3rd millennium bce. Voyages to Crete were among the earliest, followed by voyages guided by landmark navigation to Phoenicia and, later, using the early canal that tied the Nile to the Red Sea, by trading journeys sailing down the eastern coast of Africa. According to the 5th-century-bce Greek historian Herodotus, the king of Egypt about 600 bce dispatched a fleet from a Red Sea port that returned to Egypt via the Mediterranean after a journey of more than two years. Cretan and Phoenician voyagers gave greater attention to the specialization of ships for trade. Phoenician shipModel of a Phoenician ship, 13th century bce; in the Museum of the Philadelphia Civic Center.(more)The basic functions of the warship and cargo ship determined their design. Because fighting ships required speed, adequate space for substantial numbers of fighting men, and the ability to maneuver at any time in any direction, long, narrow rowed ships became the standard for naval warfare. In contrast, because trading ships sought to carry as much tonnage of goods as possible with as small a crew as practicable, the trading vessel became as round a ship as might navigate with facility. The trading vessel required increased freeboard (height between the waterline and upper deck level), as the swell in the larger seas could fairly easily swamp the low-sided galleys propelled by oarsmen. As rowed galleys became higher-sided and featured additional banks of oarsmen, it was discovered that the height of ships caused new problems. Long oars were awkward and quickly lost the force of their sweep. Thus, once kings and traders began to perceive the need for specialized ships, ship design became an important undertaking. galleyGalley of the largest size, with five men on each oar, early 17th century.(more)Viking shipExhumed Viking ship; in the Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway.(more)As was true of early wheeled vehicles, ship design also showed strong geographic orientation. Julius Caesar, for one, quickly perceived the distinctive, and in some ways superior, qualities of the ships of northern Europe. In the conquest of Britain and in their encounter with the Batavian area in Holland, Romans became aware of the northern European boat. It was generally of clinker construction (that is, with a hull built of overlapping timbers) and identical at either end. In the Mediterranean, ship design favoured carvel-built (that is, built of planks joined along their lengths to form a smooth surface) vessels that differed at the bow and stern (the forward and rear ends, respectively). In the early centuries, both Mediterranean and northern boats were commonly rowed, but the cyclonic storms found year-round in the Baltic and North Sea latitudes encouraged the use of sails. Because the sailing techniques of these early centuries depended heavily on sailing with a following wind (i.e., from behind), the frequent shifts in wind direction in the north permitted, after only relatively short waits, navigation in most compass directions. In the persistent summer high-pressure systems of the Mediterranean the long waits for a change of wind direction discouraged sailing. It was also more economical to carry goods by ship in the north. With a less absolute dependence on rowing, the double-ended clinker boat could be built with a greater freeboard than was possible in the rowed galleys of the Mediterranean. When European sailors began to look with increasing curiosity at the seemingly boundless Atlantic Ocean, greater freeboard made oceanic navigation more practicable.
Boat | Definition, History, Types, & Facts | Britannica
Boat | Definition, History, Types, & Facts | Britannica
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boat
Table of Contents
boat
Table of Contents
IntroductionRafts and dugoutsBark and skin craftPlank constructionGreek and Roman boatsModern methods and materialsExisting boat typesEarly boatsNational and regional boat typesAsiaMiddle East and MediterraneanNorthern Europe and BritainNorth AmericaShipboats
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boat, generic term for small watercraft propelled by paddles, oars, sail, or motor, open or partially decked, and usually less than 45 feet (roughly 14 metres) in length. A vessel larger than this is customarily classed as a ship, although the word boat is often applied to certain working vessels—such as tugboats—that may be of considerable size.boatFive common types of boats are the rowboat, the sailboat, the motorboat, the raft, and the canoe.(more)The early forms of the boat were many, and their design and structure depended upon available material. Where suitable timber was at hand, the raft and later the dugout canoe developed. Where suitable timber was not available, reed and bamboo rafts, skin-covered canoes, and skin floats made by inflating the hides of small animals could be found. In some timbered areas bark canoes were used. It may be assumed that the boat developed from the canoe forms; it is evident that boats did not appear until long after various forms of canoes came into being.boatThree views of a basic planked boat.(more)During the evolution of the dugout canoe the sides were raised by means of planks, and this led to gradual reduction in size of the dugout portion until it became a mere keel piece, with the rest of the hull built of plank. However, there is reason to doubt that the development of the plank boat was confined to areas where dugout canoes were used. The bark canoe and the skin boat were employed in some timbered areas, and the rigid framing of the skin boat may have been adapted naturally to plank construction. This possibility is supported by the fact that the longitudinal and transverse framing of most planked boats is basically the same as that employed in skin boats.The development of early watercraft of each of the basic forms was more rapid in some areas than in others because of varying needs for water transportation. A great many types of early craft survived into the modern era, and some are still in use. Many were of relatively large size and of excellent design for the tasks they had to perform.
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Rafts and dugouts raftBamboo raft.(more)The raft, made of timbers lashed or pegged together, was in some cases a mere float, heavy and awkward to propel. However, in a few instances, the raft was developed into an efficient sailing craft with a raised platform that enabled cargo to be carried and protected from water. Rafts made of bundles of reeds lashed together, given a somewhat pointed bow and rudimentary sides, were also used. dugoutSeagoing dugout canoe.(more)Dugouts range from simple, trough-shaped hulls to beautifully formed boats with the sides spread, after shaping, by warping with hot water. In another form, the dugout consists of a number of shaped logs fastened together to form a hull. A more common design employs a main dugout hull with the sides raised by means of planks secured by pegs or by "sewing," done by passing lashings through holes along the seams of the planking. It is but a short step from the dugout with plank sides to a boat built solely of plank, using sewed fastenings. Sewed construction was extensively used in South Pacific canoes. The ancient Egyptians built boats of short pieces of plank, laid like bricks in a wall, but used edge-fastenings instead of sewing the seams.
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Bark and skin craft kayakAn Inuit preparing to throw a harpoon from his sealskin kayak while hunting in the Bering Sea, as photographed by Edward S. Curtis in 1929.(more)Bark canoes developed in a few areas, ranging in design from craft having only the most elementary framing to the highly developed birchbark canoes of the North American Indians. The birchbark canoes had a thin plank lining held against the inside of the bark cover by an extensive framing of ribs forced under the gunwale. So efficient were these canoes that European explorers copied them for wilderness travel. Skin craft range from inflated skins, used singly or joined together in a raft, to framed hulls of good form and construction. In the latter there is a rigid frame composed of longitudinals and ribs secured by lashings or pegs, and the skins are stretched over the completed framework. Of particular note are sealskin kayaks of the Eskimo people of North America. Plank construction ancient Egyptian boatbuilding sceneBoatbuilding scene, painted limestone relief from Thebes, Egypt, c. 664–634 bce; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York. 19.4 × 27 cm.(more)The lapstrake type of planking, in which each plank or strake overlaps slightly the one below it, can be seen in an elementary form in some dugouts with plank sides. In early forms the lap is sewed its full length. The lapstrake planking method appears to have reached its final form in northern Europe, where iron fastenings were used. As seen in the remains of ancient European craft, the seams were nailed at the laps but the planking was lashed to the ribs or frames. The use of metal fastenings throughout the hull did not become common, apparently, until about the 9th century in northern Europe. Caravel planking has smooth seams, with the planks placed edge to edge and fastened only to the frames. This originated in the Mediterranean basin; possibly it evolved from the older edge-fastened plank construction of the Egyptians. However, it took its name from a class of ships built in Spain and Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries. Plank construction did not become common in Europe until metal fastenings were procurable, although pegged construction was probably used in an early stage of evolution.
The basic framework of planked boats of the conventional lapstrake or caravel forms is the same: a keel and transverse frames or ribs more or less evenly spaced along the length of the boat. At the gunwale or top edges of the planking there are longitudinals, and sometimes a little below the gunwale there are additional longitudinals to support the rowing seats or thwarts. In the early boats the frames were cut from "knees" or crooked timber, but early in the 19th century steam-bent frames came into use. One marked difference between lapstrake- and caravel-planked boats is that the former usually had ribs put in after the planking was complete whereas the caravel boat was commonly planked over the ribs. Lapstrake boats do not have the seams caulked except along the keel. Moss was used to caulk the Viking boats, while animal hair and textile materials were used in ancient Mediterranean boats. Tar was placed over the caulking to fill the seams. The lapstrake and caravel planking, combined with the basic framework, have been retained as conventional methods of boatbuilding.
BOAT中文(繁體)翻譯:劍橋詞典
BOAT中文(繁體)翻譯:劍橋詞典
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boat 在英語-中文(繁體)詞典中的翻譯
boatnoun [ C ] uk
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/bəʊt/ us
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A1 a small vehicle for travelling on water
艇;小船
a rowing/sailing boat
划艇/帆船
a fishing boat
漁船
We took turns to row the boat up the river.
我們輪流划艇船逆流而上。
informal a ship
輪船
Are you travelling by boat or by air?
你要乘船還是乘飛機旅行?
I'm taking the boat from Dover to Calais.
我要乘坐從多佛開往加來的船。
更多範例减少例句The boat was swept out to sea by the tide.The boat sank almost immediately after it had struck the rock.The lifeboat rescued the sailors from the sinking boat.The fishing boats were out at sea for three days.In the harbour, the boats bobbed gently up and down on the water.
(boat在劍橋英語-中文(繁體)詞典的翻譯 © Cambridge University Press)
boat的例句
boat
She is also a figure within the established elite and may not be disposed to rock too many boats.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
No letters reach there, and no boats or carts go there.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
All along the coast, in the small harbours, a lot of pleasure-boats a bit sophisticals are bobbing up and down beside the fishermen's boats.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
The local forecasts were important for the safety of the ship during relief operations, and of the boats when landing field parties or making plankton hauls.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
The chapter concludes by noting the increasing costs of boats, which like the building costs ending chapter 5, points us toward more general problems of resources scarcities.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
The focus was on small parties establishing depots and the use of boats for sea journeys, and dogs and ponies for sledge journeys with skis for personal transportation.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
During the monsoon a large portion of the area is inundated and boats provide the only means of transport.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
Workmen transporting goods and materials, loading and unloading ships and boats, were part of the family's close surroundings.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
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A1
boat的翻譯
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艇, 小船, 轮船…
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boot, schip, kom…
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தண்ணீரில் பயணிப்பதற்கான ஒரு சிறிய வாகனம், ஒரு கப்பல்…
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das Boot, das Schiff, die Soßenschüssel…
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човен, пароплав, соусник…
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судно, лодка, корабль…
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قَارِب…
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loďka, člun, loď…
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U-boat
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float someone's boat idiom
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push the boat out idiom
be in the same boat idiom
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veggie burger
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a type of food similar to a hamburger but made without meat, by pressing together small pieces of vegetables, seeds, etc. into a flat, round shape
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U-boat | German Submarine Warfare in WWI & WWII | Britannica
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Also known as: U-boot, Unterseeboot
Written and fact-checked by
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Last Updated:
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U-218
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Category:
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German:
U-boot
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Abbreviation:
of Unterseeboot
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Erich Ludendorff
Paul von Hindenburg
Karl Dönitz
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Recent News
Feb. 21, 2024, 12:54 AM ET (Washington Post)
British recover bell from U.S. destroyer sunk by U-boat in WWI
Learn how the Third Reich utilized U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic to destroy Allied supply convoysIn 1941 convoys bound for Britain from the United States face a perilous crossing, with many ships sunk by German submarines and surface raiders. From “The Second World War: Triumph of the Axis” (1963), a documentary by Encyclopædia Britannica Educational Corporation.(more)See all videos for this articleU-boat, (“undersea boat”), a German submarine. The destruction of enemy shipping by German U-boats was a spectacular feature of both World Wars I and II.
World War I
Germany was the first country to employ submarines in war as substitutes for surface commerce raiders. At the outset of World War I, German U-boats, though numbering only 38, achieved notable successes against British warships; but because of the reactions of neutral powers (especially the United States) Germany hesitated before adopting unrestricted U-boat warfare against merchant ships. The decision to do so in February 1917 was largely responsible for the entry of the United States into the war. The U-boat campaign then became a race between German sinkings of merchant ships and the building of ships, mainly in the United States, to replace them. In April 1917, 430 Allied and neutral ships totaling 852,000 tons were sunk, and it seemed likely that the German gamble would succeed. However, the introduction of convoys, the arrival of numerous U.S. destroyers, and the vast output of American shipyards turned the tables. By the end of the war Germany had built 334 U-boats and had 226 under construction. The peak U-boat strength of 140 was reached in October 1917, but there were never more than about 60 at sea at one time. In 1914–18 the destruction—more than 10,000,000 tons—caused by the U-boats was especially remarkable in view of the small size (less than l,000 tons), frailty, and vulnerability of the craft.
Britannica Quiz
Ships and Underwater Exploration
World War II
U-boatUSS U-3008, formerly the German U-boat U-3008, under way at sea, April 1948.(more)The Armistice terms of 1918 required Germany to surrender all its U-boats, and the Treaty of Versailles forbade it to possess them in the future. In 1935, however, Adolf Hitler’s Germany repudiated the treaty and forcefully negotiated the right to build U-boats. Britain was ill-prepared in 1939 for a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, and during the early months of World War II the U-boats, which at that time numbered only 57, again achieved great successes. The first phase, during which the U-boats generally operated singly, ended in March 1941, by which time many merchant ships were sailing in convoy, trained escort groups were becoming available, and aircraft were proving their effectiveness as anti-U-boat weapons. In the next phase the Germans, having acquired air and U-boat bases in Norway and western France, were able to reach much farther out into the Atlantic, and their U-boats began to operate in groups (called wolf packs by the British). One U-boat would shadow a convoy and summon others by radio, and then the group would attack, generally on the surface at night. These tactics succeeded until radar came to the aid of the escorts and until convoys could be given continuous sea and air escort all the way across the Atlantic in both directions. In March 1943, as in April 1917, the Germans nearly succeeded in cutting Britain’s Atlantic lifeline, but by May escort carriers and very-long-range reconnaissance bombers became available. After the U-boats lost 41 of their number during that month, they withdrew temporarily from the Atlantic.
In the next phase, U-boats were sent to remote waters where unescorted targets could still be found. Although at first they achieved considerable successes, especially in the Indian Ocean, the Allied strategy of striking at the U-boats’ supply vessels and putting all possible shipping into convoys again proved successful. In the final phase the U-boats—then fitted with the snorkel (schnorkel) ventilating tube, which permitted extended underwater travel and greatly reduced the effectiveness of radar—returned to the coastal waters around the British Isles, but they sank few ships and themselves suffered heavy losses.
In World War II Germany built 1,162 U-boats, of which 785 were destroyed and the remainder surrendered (or were scuttled to avoid surrender) at the capitulation. Of the 632 U-boats sunk at sea, Allied surface ships and shore-based aircraft accounted for the great majority (246 and 245 respectively).
This article was most recently revised and updated by Michael Ray.
Autonomous boats could be your next ride | MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Autonomous boats could be your next ride | MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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Autonomous boats could be your next ride
Autonomous boats could be your next ride
Five years in the making, MIT’s autonomous floating vessels get a size upgrade and learn a new way to communicate aboard the waters.
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Rachel Gordon
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MIT CSAIL
Publication Date:
October 26, 2020
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The latest version of MIT's autonomous boat is now 2 meters long and capable of carrying passengers.
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Photo courtesy of the researchers.
Caption:
Roboat II has scaled up to explore transportation tasks, aided by updated research. These include a new algorithm for Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM), a model-based optimal controller called nonlinear model predictive controller, and an optimization-based state estimator, called moving horizon estimation.
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The feverish race to produce the shiniest, safest, speediest self-driving car has spilled over into our wheelchairs, scooters, and even golf carts. Recently, there’s been movement from land to sea, as marine autonomy stands to change the canals of our cities, with the potential to deliver goods and services and collect waste across our waterways.
In an update to a five-year project from MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) and the Senseable City Lab, researchers have been developing the world's first fleet of autonomous boats for the City of Amsterdam, the Netherlands, and have recently added a new, larger vessel to the group: “Roboat II.” Now sitting at 2 meters long, which is roughly a “Covid-friendly” 6 feet, the new robotic boat is capable of carrying passengers.
This work was supported by grant from the Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions (AMS) in Netherlands.
Play video
Roboat, the autonomous robotic boat
Alongside the Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions, the team also created navigation and control algorithms to update the communication and collaboration among the boats.
“Roboat II navigates autonomously using algorithms similar to those used by self-driving cars, but now adapted for water,” says MIT Professor Daniela Rus, a senior author on a new paper about Roboat and the director of CSAIL. “We’re developing fleets of Roboats that can deliver people and goods, and connect with other Roboats to form a range of autonomous platforms to enable water activities.”
Self-driving boats have been able to transport small items for years, but adding human passengers has felt somewhat intangible due to the current size of the vessels. Roboat II is the “half-scale” boat in the growing body of work, and joins the previously developed quarter-scale Roboat, which is 1 meter long. The third installment, which is under construction in Amsterdam and is considered to be “full scale,” is 4 meters long and aims to carry anywhere from four to six passengers.
Aided by powerful algorithms, Roboat II autonomously navigated the canals of Amsterdam for three hours collecting data, and returned back to its start location with an error margin of only 0.17 meters, or fewer than 7 inches.
“The development of an autonomous boat system capable of accurate mapping, robust control, and human transport is a crucial step towards having the system implemented in the full-scale Roboat,” says senior postdoc Wei Wang, lead author on a new paper about Roboat II. “We also hope it will eventually be implemented in other boats in order to make them autonomous.”
Wang wrote the paper alongside MIT Senseable City Lab postdoc Tixiao Shan, research fellow Pietro Leoni, postdoc David Fernandez-Gutierrez, research fellow Drew Meyers, and MIT professors Carlo Ratti and Daniela Rus. The work was supported by a grant from the Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions in the Netherlands. A paper on Roboat II will be virtually presented at the International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.
To coordinate communication among the boats, another team from MIT CSAIL and Senseable City Lab, also led by Wang, came up with a new control strategy for robot coordination.
With the intent of self-assembling into connected, multi-unit trains — with distant homage to children’s train sets — “collective transport” takes a different path to complete various tasks. The system uses a distributed controller, which is a collection of sensors, controllers, and associated computers distributed throughout a system), and a strategy inspired by how a colony of ants can transport food without communication. Specifically, there’s no direct communication among the connected robots — only one leader knows the destination. The leader initiates movement to the destination, and then the other robots can estimate the intention of the leader, and align their movements accordingly.
“Current cooperative algorithms have rarely considered dynamic systems on the water,” says Ratti, the Senseable City Lab director. “Cooperative transport, using a team of water vehicles, poses unique challenges not encountered in aerial or ground vehicles. For example, inertia and load of the vehicles become more significant factors that make the system harder to control. Our study investigates the cooperative control of the surface vehicles and validates the algorithm on that.”
The team tested their control method on two scenarios: one where three robots are connected in a series, and another where three robots are connected in parallel. The results showed that the coordinated group was able to track various trajectories and orientations in both configurations, and that the magnitudes of the followers’ forces positively contributed to the group — indicating that the follower robots helped the leader.
Wang wrote a paper about collective transport alongside Stanford University PhD student Zijian Wang, MIT postdoc Luis Mateos, MIT researcher Kuan Wei Huang, Stanford Assistant Professor Mac Schwager, Ratti, and Rus.
Roboat II
In 2016, MIT researchers tested a prototype that could move “forward, backward, and laterally along a pre-programmed path in the canals.” Three years later, the team’s robots were updated to “shapeshift” by autonomously disconnecting and reassembling into a variety of configurations.
Now, Roboat II has scaled up to explore transportation tasks, aided by updated research. These include a new algorithm for Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM), a model-based optimal controller called nonlinear model predictive controller, and an optimization-based state estimator, called moving horizon estimation.
Here’s how it works: When a passenger pickup task is required from a user at a specific position, the system coordinator will assign the task to an unoccupied boat that’s closest to the passenger. As Roboat II picks up the passenger, it will create a feasible path to the desired destination, based on the current traffic conditions.
Then, Roboat II, which weighs more than 50 kilograms, will start to localize itself by running the SLAM algorithm and utilizing lidar and GPS sensors, as well as an inertial measurement unit for localization, pose, and velocity. The controller then tracks the reference trajectories from the planner, which updates the path to avoid obstacles that are detected to avoid potential collisions.
The team notes that the improvements in their control algorithms have made the obstacles feel like less of a giant iceberg since their last update; the SLAM algorithm provides a higher localization accuracy for Roboat, and allows for online mapping during navigation, which they didn’t have in previous iterations.
Increasing the size of Roboat also required a larger area to conduct the experiments, which began in the MIT pools and subsequently moved to the Charles River, which cuts through Boston and Cambridge, Massachusetts.
While navigating the congested roads of cities alike can lead drivers to feel trapped in a maze, canals largely avoid this. Nevertheless, tricky scenarios in the waterways can still emerge. Given that, the team is working on developing more efficient planning algorithms to let the vessel handle more complicated scenarios, by applying active object detection and identification to improve Roboat’s understanding of its environment. The team plans to estimate disturbances such as currents and waves, to further improve the tracking performance in more noisy waters.
“All of these expected developments will be incorporated into the first prototype of the full-scale Roboat and tested in the canals of the City of Amsterdam,” says Rus.
Collective transport
Making our intuitive abilities a reality for machines has been the persistent intention since the birth of the field, from straightforward commands for picking up items to the nuances of organizing in a group.
One of the main goals of the project is enabling self-assembly to complete the aforementioned tasks of collecting waste, delivering items, and transporting people in the canals — but controlling this movement on the water has been a challenging obstacle. Communication in robotics can often be unstable or have delays, which may worsen the robot coordination.
Many control algorithms for this collective transport require direct communication, the relative positions in the group, and the destination of the task — but the team’s new algorithm simply needs one robot to know the desired trajectory and orientation.
Normally, the distributed controller running on each robot requires the velocity information of the connected structure (represented by the velocity of the center of the structure), but this requires that each robot knows the relative position to the center of the structure. In the team’s algorithm, they don’t need the relative position, and each robot simply uses its local velocity instead of the velocity of the center of the structure.
When the leader initiates the movement to the destination, the other robots can therefore estimate the intention of the leader and align their movements. The leader can also steer the rest of the robots by adjusting its input, without any communication between any two robots.
In the future, the team plans to use machine learning to estimate (online) the key parameters of the robots. They’re also aiming to explore adaptive controllers that allow for dynamic change to the structure when objects are placed on the boat. Eventually, the boats will also be extended to outdoor water environments, where large disturbances such as currents and waves exist.
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Associated PressAn electric, autonomous boat developed by MIT researchers is being tested in the canals of Amsterdam as part of an effort to ease traffic, reports Aleksandar Furtula and Mike Corder for the AP. The Roboat project is aimed at developing “new ways of navigating the world’s waterways without a human hand at the wheel,” write Furtula and Corder. “The vessels are modular so they can be easily adapted for different purposes, carrying cargo or workers.”
Full story via Associated Press →
Popular MechanicsMIT researchers have unveiled a new autonomous modular boat, called the Roboat II, which that uses lidar, GPS and other sensors to navigate its surroundings, reports Kyro Mitchell for Popular Mechanics. The Roboat II “can attach itself to other Roboat II’s to form one large vessel, which is then controlled by a main ‘leader’ boat.”
Full story via Popular Mechanics →
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Roboat project pageDaniela RusCarlo RattiComputer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL)Senseable City LaboratoryDepartment of Electrical Engineering and Computer ScienceDepartment of Urban Studies and PlanningMIT Schwarzman College of Computing School of Architecture and Planning
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Boats of the Precolonial Philippines: Butuan Boats | SpringerLink
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Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures pp 1–8Cite as
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Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
Living reference work entry
Boats of the Precolonial Philippines: Butuan Boats
Ligaya Lacsina2,3
Living reference work entry
First Online: 01 January 2014
844 Accesses
1
Citations
The Butuan Boats (also known as balanghai/balangay) refer to the incomplete remains of planked boats excavated from about 2 m of waterlogged alluvial sediments in Barangay Libertad, Butuan City, Philippines (Fig. 1). Reports say that the remains of between 9 and 11 boats have been discovered by looters along what are believed to be the shores of a former river, all within a 1 km radius (Cembrano, 1998; Clark et al., 1993; Ronquillo, 1997; Salcedo, 1998). However, archaeological researchers have only confirmed six sites to date.
Fig. 1
Map of the Philippines showing the location of Butuan City (Map: d-maps.com)
Full size image
KeywordsNational MuseumAccelerator Mass SpectrometryAccelerator Mass SpectrometryPalm FiberMetal FasteningThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
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Download referencesAcknowledgmentsThe author would like to thank AINSE Ltd for providing financial assistance (Award No. 13504) to enable the AMS C-14 analysis of Butuan Boat samples. Thanks also to ANSTO, FPRDI, Flinders University, and the National Museum of the Philippines for supporting the author’s research.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Archaeology, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, AustraliaLigaya LacsinaArchaeology Division of the National Museum, Manila, PhilippinesLigaya LacsinaAuthorsLigaya LacsinaView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in
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Ligaya Lacsina .Editor informationEditors and AffiliationsHampshire College, Amherst, Massachusetts, USAHelaine Selin Rights and permissionsReprints and permissionsCopyright information© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media DordrechtAbout this entryCite this entryLacsina, L. (2014). Boats of the Precolonial Philippines: Butuan Boats.
In: Selin, H. (eds) Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10279-1Download citation.RIS.ENW.BIBDOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10279-1Received: 17 September 2014Accepted: 17 September 2014Published: 07 October 2014
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Inscribed in 2021 (16.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
© Kristian J. Engelsen, Sveinung Ystad, 2020
Nordic clinker boats are small, open, wooden boats between five and ten metres long. For almost two millennia, the people of the Nordic region (including the indigenous Sami peoples in Finland, Norway and Sweden and minority groups such as the Kvens in Norway, the Tornedalians in Sweden and the Swedish-speaking population in Finland) have been building clinker boats using the same basic techniques: thin planks are fastened to a backbone of the keel and stems, and the overlapping planks are fastened together with metal rivets, treenails or rope. The shell of the boat is strengthened with frames. Clinker boat builders emphasize the long time it takes to acquire the knowledge and skills for building traditional boats. In the past, it was common to start training with a master from a young age, and it would take up to ten years to learn the trade. A symbol of common Nordic coastal heritage, clinker boats were traditionally used for fishing and to transport materials and people. Today, they are primarily used in traditional festivities, regattas and sporting events, even though about a thousand persons make a full or partial living through the production, maintenance or use of clinker boats. Clinker boat traditions include social practices. For instance, once finished, boats may be ceremonially carried to the water where they are then given a name and wished good fortune; traditional songs may be sung during sailing and rowing.
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Recreational boats routinely transfer organisms and promote marine bioinvasions | Biological Invasions
Recreational boats routinely transfer organisms and promote marine bioinvasions | Biological Invasions
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Biological Invasions
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Recreational boats routinely transfer organisms and promote marine bioinvasions
Original Paper
Published: 17 January 2022
Volume 24, pages 1083–1096, (2022)
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Biological Invasions
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Gail V. Ashton
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5884-33831, Chela J. Zabin1, Ian C. Davidson2,3 & …Gregory M. Ruiz2 Show authors
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AbstractRecreational boats and their marinas are important components of the hub-and-spoke model of invasion in coastal marine systems. Like most vectors, however, species transfers by boats are under-sampled and the extent of invasion among coastal bays is patchily sampled, with a bias towards larger urbanized bays with commercial port systems. We assessed both the hubs (bays with marinas) and the spokes (recreational boat movements and their vector biota) that form the basis of a non-shipping hub-and-spoke system for the coast of California. Non-native invertebrates and algae have been reported from most bays in California (26 of 27), with only five of these having commercial shipping ports. Recreational boats offer frequent opportunities for transfers of species among bays; 292,000 recreational boats were registered in coastal California, and more than half (54%) of surveyed recreational boat owners made voyages outside their home bays. Destinations for recreational boaters often included bays without commercial ports and areas of conservation value inside National Marine Sanctuaries. We recorded 158 taxa from the hulls and niche areas of 49 transient recreational boats upon arrival at Californian marinas. These included several non-native species that are already well-established at arrival locations and four that are not known from the state or sampling location. Biofouling abundance on vessels ranged from zero to remarkably high levels (estimated at 106 organisms) for vessels that traverse open coastal systems. Management opportunities and models exist for the recreational boat vector but, absent operational incentives, these are challenging to implement broadly. An initial management focus on areas recognised for their distinct marine habitats and biodiversity may be an effective implementation approach.
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Fig. 1Fig. 2Fig. 3Fig. 4
Availability of data and material
Species list available in Supplementary material. Raw data available upon request to corresponding author.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsWe thank all harbourmasters and boaters that gave generously of their time to facilitate and contribute to this research. We thank C. Brown for sponge identifications and assistance in the field, and taxonomists K.A. Miller (algae), L. Harris (polychaetes), K. Larson (tunicates), Dale Calder (hydroids), L. McCann and N. Hitchcock (bryozoans). We are grateful to P. Fofonoff and B. Steves who adapted the NEMESIS database for this research. This work was supported by Proposition 84 funds made available to California Ocean Science Trust by the California Ocean Protection Council.FundingThis work was supported by Proposition 84 funds made available to California Ocean Science Trust by the California Ocean Protection Council.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsSmithsonian Environmental Research Center, 3150 Paradise Drive, Tiburon, CA, 94920, USAGail V. Ashton & Chela J. ZabinSmithsonian Environmental Research Center, 647 Contees Wharf Road, Edgewater, MD, 21037, USAIan C. Davidson & Gregory M. RuizCawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson, 7010, New ZealandIan C. DavidsonAuthorsGail V. AshtonView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in
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Additional informationPublisher's NoteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Supplementary InformationBelow is the link to the electronic supplementary material.Supplementary file1 (DOCX 18 kb)Rights and permissionsReprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleAshton, G.V., Zabin, C.J., Davidson, I.C. et al. Recreational boats routinely transfer organisms and promote marine bioinvasions.
Biol Invasions 24, 1083–1096 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-021-02699-xDownload citationReceived: 07 April 2021Accepted: 03 December 2021Published: 17 January 2022Issue Date: April 2022DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-021-02699-xShare this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy to clipboard
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KeywordsBioinvasionBiogeographyDistributionHull biofoulingMarine sessile invertebrateMarine algae
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Recreational Boats and Turtles: Behavioral Mismatches Result in High Rates of Injury | PLOS ONE
Recreational Boats and Turtles: Behavioral Mismatches Result in High Rates of Injury | PLOS ONE
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Recreational Boats and Turtles: Behavioral Mismatches Result in High Rates of Injury
Lori A. Lester ,
* E-mail: llester@desu.edu
Affiliations
Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Delaware State University, Dover, Delaware, United States of America,
Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
⨯
Harold W. Avery,
Affiliations
Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America,
The Leatherback Trust, Haddonfield, New Jersey, United States of America
⨯
Andrew S. Harrison,
Affiliations
Department of Biology, Buffalo State College, Buffalo, New York, United States of America,
Williamsville Central Schools, Williamsville, New York, United States of America
⨯
Edward A. Standora
Affiliation
Department of Biology, Buffalo State College, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
⨯
Recreational Boats and Turtles: Behavioral Mismatches Result in High Rates of Injury
Lori A. Lester,
Harold W. Avery,
Andrew S. Harrison,
Edward A. Standora
x
Published: December 11, 2013
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370
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AbstractRecreational boats are a dominant feature of estuarine waters in the United States. Boat strike injury and mortality may have a detrimental effect on populations of diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin), a keystone species in estuarine ecosystems. In Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, 11% of terrapins (n = 2,644) have scars consistent with injuries from boats. Conservative estimates of injury rates from boats increased from 2006 to 2011. When exposed to playback recordings of approaching boat engines of varying sizes and speeds in situ, terrapins did not significantly change their behavior in response to sounds of boat engines of different sizes. The lack of behavioral response of terrapins to boat sounds helps explain high rates of injury and mortality of terrapins and may threaten the viability of terrapin populations. Boater education courses that discuss impacts of boats to wildlife, combined with closure of areas of high terrapin densities to boating, are necessary to protect terrapins and other aquatic species from injury and mortality caused by motorized boats.
Citation: Lester LA, Avery HW, Harrison AS, Standora EA (2013) Recreational Boats and Turtles: Behavioral Mismatches Result in High Rates of Injury. PLoS ONE 8(12):
e82370.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370Editor: Richard Reina, Monash University, AustraliaReceived: July 4, 2013; Accepted: October 22, 2013; Published: December 11, 2013Copyright: © 2013 Lester et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.Funding: The funders at the Earthwatch Institute had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The Betz Chair of Environmental Science at Drexel University was involved in study design and preparation of the manuscript.Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
IntroductionRecreational boating is a popular pastime in the USA where there are over 12 million registered boats [1]. Recreational boats may affect aquatic animals directly by causing injury or mortality and indirectly through behavioral or physiological responses to anthropogenic sounds. Many aquatic species are directly affected by recreational boat propeller strikes including crocodiles [2], turtles [3], birds [4], and marine mammals [5]. Behavioral and physiological responses or the lack thereof of aquatic animals to boat sounds may lead to reduced fitness by lowering survival rates and/or reproductive rates [6], [7].
Many turtles can detect sounds under 1000 Hz including estuarine [8], [9], freshwater [10], [11], and sea turtle species [12]. Recreational boats produce low-frequency sounds that overlap with turtle hearing ranges [13]. Therefore, it is logical to conclude that turtles can hear and possibly avoid oncoming boats. However, some populations of diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States experience high (6 to 20%) rates of injuries from anthropogenic sources [3], [14]–[16]. Thus, terrapins may not respond behaviorally to avoid boats. Boat injuries also reduce body condition of male terrapins and survivorship of both male and female terrapins [3]. Mortality can also occur via blunt-force trauma from being hit by a boat or lethal injury from a propeller [17].
Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and green (Chelonian mydas) turtles respond to anthropogenic boat sounds by increasing submergence time between breaths, spending more time underwater, and swimming to the surface [18], [19]. However, these studies were performed in laboratory aquaria [19], [20] where sounds are distorted due to reverberation and resonance [21]. Some sea turtle species respond to seismic air guns in situ with erratic behavior but results from these studies are compromised by small sample sizes and individual differences in behavioral response [22], [23]. It is unknown whether free-living diamondback terrapins respond to the sound of oncoming boats.
Motorized boat densities in estuaries are among the highest of any aquatic ecosystem in the world [1] and the diamondback terrapin is the only turtle species in the USA to inhabitat brackish habitats exclusively throughout its life. Therefore, boats are a potentially important threat to terrapins and it is important to determine how terrapins respond to boat sounds. The goals of this study were to (1) measure the rate of terrapin injury due to boat strikes in Barnegat Bay, NJ in order to determine the direct impact of boats on the terrapin population, and (2) determine whether terrapins behaviorally respond to boat engine sounds in situ. We recorded injury data for wild terrapins captured over seven years in a mark-recapture population study. We then used recorded underwater sounds of different sized boat engines to determine the behavioral responses of terrapins to these recordings. Our study was performed in situ to better understand how turtles respond to sounds in their natural environment.
Materials and Methods
Ethics Statement
All research protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at Drexel University (protocol #18296). Special Use Permit (#10038) was provided by the Edwin B. Forsythe Wildlife Refuge and Scientific Holding (#2010105) and Collecting (#29102) Permits were provided by the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife and issued to HWA.
Study Site
Our study was conducted in the Barnegat Division of the Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge (Forsythe) in the Barnegat Bay estuary. Barnegat Bay is a 70 km long estuary located along the eastern coast of New Jersey, USA and is adversely affected by many anthropogenic factors, including high levels of recreational boating [24].
Field Sampling Techniques
We captured diamondback terrapins using hoop nets, fyke nets, dip nets, and by hand as part of a long term population study of the terrapins in Barnegat Bay from 2006 to 2011. We recorded location of injury including carapace, plastron, bridge, tail, limb, and head (Fig. 1). For each terrapin capture, we described shell injuries by recording position and names of broken scutes, and by drawing injuries on a diagram of the terrapin shell. We assumed that major shell damage (defined as injury to two or more adjacent vertebral, costal, or plastral scutes, or three or more adjacent marginal scutes) to adult turtles was caused by boats [3]. We assumed that major shell injuries were from recreational boat propellers because terrapin nesting beaches are not located near roads in Forsythe. In general, diamondback terrapins with boat injuries tend to have scars from propellers and those with automobile injuries tend to have crushed shells. Some diamondback terrapins in Forsythe Refuge appear to be hit by the hull of boat or personal watercraft (PWC) instead of the propeller and display a crushed carapace similar to those injuries seen in terrapins that have been hit by automobiles. We used linear regression to determine if there was a temporal change in injury rates and to determine if larger terrapins were more likely to be injured by a boat than smaller individuals over a six year period.
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PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 1. Anthropogenic injuries to diamondback terrapins.Diamondback terrapins were classified as having an anthropogenic injury if damage occurred to two or more vertebral or costal scutes (A), two or more plastral scutes (B), and/or three or more marginal scutes. Photo A shows a female terrapin with an anthropogenic injury to two vertebral and two costal scutes whereas photo B shows an anthropogenic injury to two plastral scutes. Many injured terrapins also had missing limbs (C), tail, or head (D) injuries. Photo C shows a terrapin missing its front left limb which could be due to a boat injury or a predator. In photo D, the terrapin has an anthropogenic injury to its beak and anterior plastron. This injury was assumed to be from a boat because it appeared to be a slash from a propeller that occurred from the plastron through the beak to the anterior carapace. Anthropogenic injury rates are likely an underestimate of the actual number of terrapins hit by boats and automobiles because many of these injuries lead to mortality.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370.g001
Experimental Methodology
We exposed small (n = 40, 400 to 600 g body mass) and large (n = 40, 1,000 to 1,200 g body mass) non-gravid, uninjured female terrapins to playback recordings of approaching boat engines. Female terrapins were selected because they attain significantly larger body size than males allowing total mass of data loggers attached to terrapins to be under 5% of body mass [25]. Mean mass of captured male terrapins was 266.1 g±50.1 SD, which is too small for data logger attachment. Non-gravid females were selected because they were less likely to exit water to pursue nesting areas. We used small and large size classes of female terrapins because older (i.e., larger) females may have reduced hearing capability compared to younger (i.e., smaller) females.
Playback Recordings
We recorded sounds of four different recreational boats varying in length and outboard engine size with a digital recording computer (Sound DSA ST 191; Cetacean Research Technology; Seattle, WA, USA) and a hydrophone (C54XRS; Cetacean Research Technology; Seattle, WA, USA). Boats included a Lowe boat (Johnson 9.9 hp outboard two cycle motor, 4.3 m length, 22.9 km/hr speed), a Polar Kraft boat (Mercury 25 hp outboard two cycle motor, 4.3 m length, 41.9 km/hr speed), an Action Craft boat (Johnson 110 hp outboard two cycle motor, 5.5 m length, 40 km/hr speed), and a Parker boat (two Johnson 150 hp outboard four cycle motors, 8.5 m length, 53.4 km/hr speed). Each of the four boats was driven at maximum speed past the hydrophone parallel to shore within 1 m from the hydrophone. We measured the sound spectrum of each boat with SpectraPRO 3.32 (Cetacean Research Technology; Seattle, WA, USA) for each 1 min long recording [26].
Data Loggers and Transmitters
To measure changes in swimming behavior in relation to boat sounds, we outfitted each terrapin with a HOBO Pendant G acceleration data logger (UA-004-64, accuracy ±2.5°; Onset Computers; Bourne, MA, USA) and a Data Storage Tag (DST) milli-L temperature and depth data logger (depth range 10 cm to 20 m, depth accuracy ±8 cm; Star-Oddi; Reykjavik, Iceland; Fig. 2). The HOBO pendant G data logger recorded x-, y-, and z-axis orientation of the terrapin in degrees every 1 s and the DST recorded depth and temperature every 1 s during the trials. We calculated mean change in pitch (x-axis) and roll (y-axis) of terrapins before, during, and after sound by taking the mean of the absolute values of each value minus the value from the previous 1 s.
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PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 2. Data loggers and transmitters attached to an adult female diamondback terrapin.A HOBO Pendant G data logger recorded the orientation of the terrapin in the water every 1(A). A Data Storage Tag milli-L temperature and depth data logger recorded depth of the terrapin every 1 s (B). Sonic (C) and radio (D) transmitters allowed us to relocate terrapin in case of escape. Transmitters and data loggers weighed <5% body mass of terrapins.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370.g002A sonic transmitter (IBT-96-5; 40 kHz; 8.5 g; Sonotronics; Tucson, AZ, USA) and a radio transmitter (V2B154; two-stage; 164 MHz; 27 g; Sirtrak; Havelock North, New Zealand) enabled relocation of the terrapin during the study (Fig. 2). The radio transmitter was embedded in a streamlined syntactic foam float tethered to the posterior marginal scute of the terrapin to allow continuous reception of radio signals. The radio transmitter float also allowed us to visualize where the terrapin was swimming during trials. We detected sonic transmitters using a submersible sonic receiver (N15A235B; Dukane Underwater Acoustic Location Receiver; St. Charles, IL, USA) and radio signals were detected with a two-element yagi antenna connected to a radio receiver (R1000; Communications Specialists Incorporated; Orange, CA, USA).
Experimental Design
We exposed each terrapin to playback recordings in a 60 m segment of a canal (locally called a mosquito ditch) that was approximately 1.5 m deep by 2 m wide located in Forsythe. Mosquito ditches are straight, narrow canals that are dug to control mosquito populations. We blocked off both ends of the mosquito ditch with plywood to ensure that terrapins were in the canal and tidal water flow that could otherwise influence behavior was minimized. All trials were completed within two hours of high tide to ensure the canal had maximum water depth (∼1.5 m).
An underwater speaker (LL9816; Lubell Labs; Columbus, OH, USA) was suspended at a depth of 75 cm at the midpoint of the 60 m long canal for playing back recorded boat sounds. The speaker was connected to a Speco Amplifier (PAT 20 TB 20 Watt 12 V PA; Speco Technologies; Amityville, NY, USA) which broadcasted boat motor sounds played back with the computer program, SpectraPRO 3.32. We monitored playback recordings prior to each trial with the hydrophone (C54XRS) suspended at various distances (1 m, 5 m, and 10 m) from the underwater speaker to determine sound propagation in the canal.
We initiated each trial by releasing a terrapin into the water at a randomly chosen end of the canal and allowed it to acclimatize for fifteen minutes. The terrapin was allowed to swim freely and when its radio transmitter float was 10 m from the speaker, we started a playback recording of a boat motor. Each trial ended when the terrapin completed swimming a total of 60 m regardless of whether it swam straight or turned during the trial. We determined swimming speed by timing how long it took each terrapin's radio transmitter float to travel through each 10 m section. We standardized swim speed as a function of body length of each terrapin using straight carapace length (expressed as body lengths s−1). Six trials were completed per terrapin: three were sound trials where one of the four boat engine recordings was played and three were control trials were the terrapin was allowed to swim past the underwater speaker with no sound playing.
Data Analyses
We used a multivariate linear mixed-effects model to test for significant behavioral response variables (i.e., swimming speed, swimming depth, change in pitch, and change in roll) before, during, and after exposure to playback recordings. Fixed effects included treatment (sound or control), terrapin size (small or large), and time (before, during, or after sound playback). Behavioral measurements were repeated three times for each individual terrapin. We used a nested design to avoid pseudoreplication in the analysis. The within-individual repeated measurements were added as random effects including individual terrapin (n = 10) and number of trials (three trials per terrapin). We used restricted maximum likelihood (REML) to model changes in terrapin behavior in response to playback sound with the package lme4 [27] in program R 2.14.0. P-values were obtained by likelihood ratio tests of the full model against the model without the effect of sound exposure.
ResultsEleven percent of diamondback terrapins in Edwin B. Forsythe Wildlife Refuge had substantial boat injuries (Fig. 3; n = 291 of 2,644). Mean rates of boat injury for adult female terrapins increased significantly from 2006 to 2011 (Fig. 3A; Y = 0.01 X – 22.2, R2 = 0.74, P = 0.02). However, mean rates of boat injury for male terrapins did not increase over time (Y = 0.004 X – 7.4, R2 = 0.10, P = 0.55). Large female (Y = 0.003 X – 0.3. R2 = 0.73, P<0.0001) and male (Y = 0.003 X – 0.2, R2 = 0.56, P = 0.03) terrapins are more prone to boat injuries than smaller individuals of the same sex (Fig. 3B).
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PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 3. Injury rates of diamondback terrapins in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey.Mean boat injury frequency increased for adult female terrapins captured in the Edwin B. Forsythe Wildlife Refuge from 2006 to 2011 (A; linear regression, Y = 0.01 X -22.2, R2 = 0.74, P = 0.02). Large female (Y = 0.003 X – 0.3, R2 = 0.73, P<0.001) and male (Y = 0.003 X – 0.2, R2 = 0.56, P = 0.03) terrapins were more likely to be injured by a boat than smaller individuals (B). The number of boat injuries resulting in death was unknown because dead animals were lost to the natural system.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370.g003Boat engine sounds in Barnegat Bay were in the hearing range of terrapins [8] with low-frequency components with maximum sound pressure levels (SPL) between 100 and 140 dB re 1 µPa rms in the 400 to 600 Hz range (Fig. 4). When we measured spectrums of the playback recordings at 1 m from the underwater speaker, playback boat sounds had SPLs that were lower than the corresponding original recording but were still in the hearing range of diamondback terrapins (Fig. 5). At 1 m from speaker, mean SPL was 15 dB re 1 µPa rms lower than the original recording for Lowe Boat, 18 dB re 1 µPa rms for Polar Kraft, 28 re 1 µPa rms for Action Craft, and 20 re 1 µPa rms for Parker Boat. When sound was measured 10 m from the underwater speaker, the playback boat sound was no longer detectable from ambient sound in the mosquito ditch due to the shallow water causing attenuation of the sound. Thus terrapins may not be able to distinguish the boat sound from the ambient sound in the mosquito ditch when located more than 10 m from the speaker.
Download:
PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 4. Mean boat spectrums.Each terrapin was exposed to one of four different boat engine recordings: Lowe boat (9.9 hp motor), Polar Kraft boat (25 hp motor), Action Craft boat (110 hp motor), and Parker boat (two 150 hp motors). The maximum sound pressure level (SPL) recorded from each boat varied from 100 to 140 dB re 1 µPa in the 400 to 600 Hz range. The range of best hearing for terrapins (i.e., the frequencies at which terrapins can hear the lowest thresholds) underwater is also from 400 to 600 Hz suggesting that terrapins should be able to hear the boat recordings [9].
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370.g004
Download:
PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageFigure 5. Sound propagation in the experimental canal.We measured mean spectrums of each boat recording (A – Lowe Boat, B – Polar Kraft, C – Action Craft, D – Parker Boat) at various distances (1 m, 5 m, and 10 m) from the underwater speaker. At 1 m from the speaker, the playback boat sound was a mean SPL of 15 to 28 dB re 1 µPa less than original recording depending on which boat sound was playing. At 5 m from speaker, the playback boat sound was not detectable from ambient sound in the canal probably because the sound attenuated rapidly due to the shallow water and soft mud substrate on the sides and bottom of the mosquito ditch.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370.g005Terrapins did not significantly change behavior in response to playback recordings. Swimming speed did not differ before, during, or after playback recordings (Table 1 & 2; p-values from 0.14 to 0.76). Mean swimming depth of terrapins varied from 0.1 m to 0.25 m but did not significantly change in response to exposure to acoustic recordings of approaching boat engines (Table 2 & 3; p-values from 0.21 to 0.81). Pitch and roll varied from 3° to 5°. There were no significant differences in mean absolute value of change in pitch or roll in response to playback recordings in either size class (Table 2 & 4; p-values from 0.07 to 0.70 for pitch and 0.09 to 0.73 for roll) indicating that terrapins were not making sudden or erratic movements in response to boat sounds. Since the effects of terrapin size and boat engine size on behavioral response variables were not statistically significant, analyses were redone with these fixed effect variables removed. Diamondback terrapins still did not significantly change behavior in response to playback recordings of boat engine sounds (p-values from 0.12 to 0.92).
Download:
PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageTable 1. Mean swimming speed of diamondback terrapins in response to playback recordings of approaching boats.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370.t001
Download:
PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageTable 2. Summary statistics for terrapin behavioral response to playback recordings of boat engine sounds.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370.t002
Download:
PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageTable 3. Mean swimming depth of diamondback terrapins in response to boat engine sounds.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370.t003
Download:
PPTPowerPoint slidePNGlarger imageTIFForiginal imageTable 4. Mean change in orientation of terrapins in the water in response to playback recordings of boat sounds.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082370.t004
DiscussionDiamondback terrapins do not behaviorally respond to playback recordings of boat engine sounds and have high rates of boat injuries suggesting that conservation measures are needed to protect viability of terrapin populations. McGregor [28] identified three reasons why significant differences in behavior are not found during playback experiments. First, the subjects may not be able to perceive the difference between control and experimental exposure. In our study, this is unlikely because terrapins physiologically respond to low-frequency sounds less than 1000 Hz [8] and recreational boat engines produce low-frequency sounds within the hearing range of terrapins. Second, the variables measured may not be sensitive enough to detect a significant behavioral response [28]. This is unlikely because the depth and orientation of each terrapin were recorded every 1 s during experimental trials. Swimming speed was measured in each 10 m segment of the experimental canal through which the terrapin swam. It is possible that this variable was not sensitive enough to detect a startle response because terrapins may accelerate at shorter distances than 10 m. Third, animals may be able to detect treatment differences but their behavioral response may be the same regardless of whether or not the sound is played. Because terrapins in Barnegat Bay are exposed to high levels of recreational boating traffic [29], those used in this study may have been habituated to the sounds produced by boat engines and therefore may not respond behaviorally. Further testing using naïve terrapins may determine whether this was the case. Loggerhead and green sea turtles do not behaviorally respond to anthropogenic sounds unless the SPL of the sound exceeds 166 dB re 1 µPa rms [23]. We did not expose diamondback terrapins to boat sounds with SPLs as high as this, but we did not measure boat sounds with SPLs that high in Barnegat Bay. Nevertheless, diamondback terrapins in Barnegat Bay do not respond to boat engine sounds at SPLs that are present in their environment and thus are at risk of injury.
Boat injuries were found in 11% of captured terrapins. This high injury rate only included terrapins that survived their injuries. Thus our estimates of injury rates are conservative because killed terrapins would not be included. We have observed dead terrapins washed up on nesting sites that had major carapace and plastron damage consistent with boat propeller strikes. These observations are consistent with our findings that terrapins do not significantly alter their behavior in response to sounds of approaching boats.
Anthropogenic mortality has an important negative impact on freshwater turtles [30] and sea turtles [31], and can drive populations towards extinction [32]–[34]. The lack of behavioral response of terrapins to the sounds of approaching boats and the probable lack of awareness of boaters to terrapins likely explain the high rate of injuries to terrapins due to boat strikes in Barnegat Bay and other North American estuaries.
Turtles may use cues other than sound to alert them to anthropogenic disturbances such as oncoming boats. For example, terrapins may be able to determine whether a boat is approaching by the shadow cast into the water by the vessel or the displacement of the water by the approaching boat. Harrison [35] found that medium (833 to 895 g) and large (1067 to 1170 g) female terrapins increased their depth in water by 0.16 to 0.18 m respectively, when confronted with a moving boat. However, this change in swimming depth is likely not great enough for a terrapin to avoid contact with a boat propeller.
Boat operators in Barnegat Bay and elsewhere generally do not respond to the presence of terrapins. Boaters speeding through the narrow creeks of the Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge on jet skis or motorized boats appear unaware of terrapins. The majority of boats we saw in the creeks of Forsythe Refuge during the summer months from 2008 to 2010 were personal watercrafts (PWC), small recreational boats with motors up to 150 hp, and small commercial crabbing vessels. Many boaters we observed speed through saltmarsh creeks despite posted speed limits and could easily hit terrapins because water depth is less than 0.5 m deep during low tide. From conversations, some local boat operators are not even aware that terrapins are found in Barnegat Bay.
Terrapins may also travel in the open waters of Barnegat Bay [36] where they are exposed to various boat types from sail boats to speed boats with high powered engines that attain high speeds. In the open waters of the Bay, boaters moving at moderate speeds would not likely see a terrapin in the turbid water ahead. The potential for injury to terrapins was likely very high in both tidal creeks and open bay.
Diamondback terrapin populations throughout the U.S. are threatened by anthropogenic factors including drowning in crab pots [16], [37]–[39], mortality by automobiles while searching for nesting habitat [40], habitat destruction [16], and predation by non-native predators [41]. The impacts of injury and mortality of aquatic turtles caused by boats are an additional significant threat to the viability of terrapin populations. Because terrapins do not react behaviorally to boat sounds and show limited avoidance of fast approaching boats [35], solutions to reducing anthropogenic injury and mortality must include changes to how boats are operated. We recommend that boat operators are educated to how wildlife may be impacted by boats because all states with terrapin populations require a boater education course to obtain licenses to operate a power boat in the US. Information on the ecology and behavior of terrapins and other aquatic wildlife could be included in such courses. This educational component could succeed if reinforced with regulations closing certain areas of terrapin habitat to boats in areas of high terrapin densities during their activity period. In Barnegat Bay, areas of high densities include aquatic habitat adjacent to nesting beaches during nesting season (late May to mid-July). Further research is necessary to determine other high terrapin density areas such as where mating aggregations are located. Boat wakes may also cause shoreline erosion, especially within sandy nesting beaches [42]. By closing areas of high terrapin density to boating, terrapins would be protected from injury and nesting habitat protected from shoreline erosion. Implementing regulations regarding motorized boat use in habitats with high turtle densities and educating boaters about impacts of boats to aquatic wildlife will be beneficial for conserving turtle populations worldwide.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank Michael O'Connor (Drexel University) for his expertise in statistical analyses, and James Spotila (Drexel University) and Arthur Popper (University of Maryland) for invaluable advice and discussion regarding this manuscript.
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Open AccessReview
Solar Energy-Powered Boats: State of the Art and Perspectives
by
Giangiacomo MinakGiangiacomo Minak
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Department of Industrial Engineering (DIN), Alma Mater Studiorum—Università di Bologna, Via Montaspro 97, 47121 Forlì, Italy
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11(8), 1519; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11081519
Submission received: 13 June 2023
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Revised: 18 July 2023
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Accepted: 26 July 2023
/
Published: 30 July 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Renewable Energy and the Transition to a Low Carbon Future)
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Abstract:
This paper presents an examination of the primary applications of solar energy as the main power source in the maritime sector, focusing on recent developments. A comprehensive review of the existing literature, including journal articles, proceedings, and patents, is conducted to identify three prominent areas for advancing solar energy-powered boats: maritime drones, sporting boats, and short-range touristic vessels. Maritime drones primarily serve as small autonomous boats for research, conservation, or military operations. On the other hand, sporting boats include nautical and energy design competitions involving students and enthusiasts. In terms of commercial interest, there is a growing demand for environmentally friendly and low-noise boats suitable for tourist activities, particularly in protected areas. Furthermore, specific and illustrative cases are explored in a dedicated section. Lastly, potential future perspectives are discussed and elucidated.
Keywords: solar energy; photovoltaic panels; electric boats; autonomous naval vehicles; hydrofoils
1. IntroductionThe demand for enhanced transportation efficiency has gained significant importance due to the reliance on fossil fuel-powered (a progressively scarce energy source) vehicles, which result in the emission of substantial toxic pollutants that exacerbate the greenhouse effect. Within the automotive sector, there have been endeavors to develop vehicles that can serve as alternatives to combustion engine cars, such as electric vehicles and solar energy-powered vehicles [1]. This necessitates various interdisciplinary design activities [2] aimed at reducing weight, improving aerodynamics, and enhancing the functional features of solar vehicles [3,4,5].Solar energy-powered boats have emerged as a noteworthy solution for environmentally friendly transportation, starting with Alan T. Freeman’s pioneering solar boat called Solar Craft 1 in 1975 [6]. These boats have garnered increasing interest from esteemed boatyards, universities, and research centers worldwide, as they address the need for eco-friendly transportation (refer to [7] for a recent review on the life cycle assessment of PV panels).Solar-powered boats offer a multitude of advantages detailed in [8]. Firstly, they boast the remarkable attribute of emitting zero greenhouse gases, thus making a substantial contribution towards combating the urgent global issue of climate change and safeguarding both human society and biodiversity. Moreover, these boats are entirely independent of fossil fuels, which are exhaustible energy sources, thereby providing a sustainable and resilient alternative. Another notable benefit lies in their remarkably low noise levels, courtesy of employing electric motors, enabling a quiet onboard environment. Furthermore, solar-powered boats exhibit reduced maintenance costs, owing to their simpler machinery and limited number of moving parts, facilitating straightforward operation and upkeep utilizing commonly available tools. Lastly, these boats ensure heightened safety by eliminating the need to carry substantial quantities of fuel and oil, effectively mitigating the potential risks of spills and fires. Collectively, solar-powered boats present an esteemed choice for a greener, quieter, and safer boating experience.Compared to other solar vehicles, such as the car discussed in [2], solar boats possess greater potential for three main reasons: the first is related to the overall dimensions. The roof area of an automotive vehicle typically ranges from 5 to 6 m
2
for a car [9] and up to 34 m
2
for a truck [10], allowing for a peak PV power output in the range of 1 to 6 kW. However, this constitutes only a tiny fraction of the engine power, particularly for larger vehicles. Conversely, the designer enjoys substantial freedom in determining the shape and size of PV panels for boats. The second reason is related to the shape of the panels, which consists of lower aerodynamic requirements due to the generally limited speed of this kind of vessel. And finally, third, the boats spend most of their useful life directly exposed to the sunlight.Nevertheless, the feasibility of a solar boat hinges on achieving the highest level of energy efficiency, which relies on various design and manufacturing aspects.This work aims to offer a comprehensive review of how these factors have been embodied in different boat types in the past, mostly prototypes, to serve as the foundation for further developments for the design activities in the fields described in the following sections.Although several recent reviews have been published on this subject [11,12,13,14], the perspectives of these authors differ, as they also encompass hybrid boats and other renewable energy sources and do not consider certain classes of solar maritime vehicles.This paper focuses solely on boats that are primarily powered by solar energy and occasionally supplemented by wind or wave energy, thereby excluding boats equipped with internal combustion motors [15].Therefore, attention will be directed towards the categories of boats where the practical significance of solar–electric propulsion has been established, namely, small autonomous boats, leisure vessels designed for slow and limited-range tours, and sporting boats.The depicted powertrain configuration in Figure 1 represents the typical setup observed in the analyzed cases, including the solar panel with MPPT charge controller, the battery with the BMS system, DC converters, inverters, and the electric motor.While selecting suitable PV systems is an area of significant interest [16], comprehensive details regarding the specific PV cell types employed are scarce in the reviewed literature. However, it is commonly noted that mono or polycrystalline silicon-based cells are utilized. Likewise, the discussion on motor configurations is not extensive but various options, such as brushless, asynchronous, or DC configurations, are encountered.
Figure 1.
Scheme of the typical powertrain of a solar boat [17].
Figure 1.
Scheme of the typical powertrain of a solar boat [17].
Figure 2 schematically depicts the various types of boats discussed in the subsequent sections. One can observe a displacement hull (SWATH), three potential displacement or planing hulls, namely the catamaran, monohull, and trimaran, and the flying monohull with hydrofoils, primarily reserved for sporting-type vessels.The first paragraph examines maritime drones, the second focuses on sporting boats, and the third analyzes tourist boats. The paper concludes with a final section dedicated to other specific applications, followed by summarizing remarks and potential avenues for further development. 2. Maritime DronesIn recent years, autonomous vehicle studies have expanded across various domains, including aeronautics, automotive, and maritime applications [18,19]. Solar-powered autonomous surface vehicles (ASVs) offer the advantage of not requiring refueling or recharging at their base (port or mothership), thus potentially extending their mission’s temporal and, in some cases, spatial range.Maritime drones are primarily utilized for scientific monitoring purposes or military operations. In scientific monitoring, autonomous sailboats equipped with limited solar panels and small batteries are often employed to power control devices and auxiliary electric motors [20,21,22,23]. Notable early applications include low-cost, reusable, re-configurable ASVs developed to facilitate research on carbon dioxide air–sea flux and phytoplankton productivity [24,25].An innovative system proposed in [26] combines autonomous vehicles and fixed buoys, achieving complete power and navigation autonomy through a fuzzy decision-making software architecture. This solution offers the maneuverability of a drone while enabling anchoring to the seabed, functioning as a buoy for measurements or battery recharging, ensuring the required energy autonomy for sustained operations.Recent documentation by [27,28] showcases the use of commercial monohull ASVs for sea environmental monitoring. In [29], a commercial ASV is employed in the polar region, operating continuously during the long polar day months and at least two weeks during the polar night, emphasizing the need for reliability due to limited vehicle access. In this case, the ASV harnesses wave power and employs a solar-powered auxiliary motor.Contrasting the earlier monohull boat approaches, ref. [30] presents a solar catamaran capable of autonomous navigation and continuous collection of water quality information in lakes. Another catamaran named Morvarid, described in [31], focuses on hydrography mapping and the characterization of shallow water environments like rivers, estuaries, lakes, and dams, emphasizing the optimization of energy harvested by PV panels.Some drones may be small in size (less than 1 m) and operate at low speeds, such as those developed by [32] for seabed depth measurement in coastal regions or the recent drone described in detail by [33].While there is a lack of scientific open literature on military drones, Figure 3, taken in January 2023 in the Persian Gulf, demonstrates their relatively high technological readiness level, likely based on a conceptual design similar to [23]. The picture shows two Saildrone Explorer unmanned surface vessels and the guided-missile destroyer USS Delbert D. Black. The appearance of the U.S. Department of Defense visual information does not imply or constitute DOD endorsement.Solar-powered autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) also find applications but they necessitate solar panel exposure to sunlight. To address this requirement, ref. [34] proposes a solution wherein the AUV mission involves daily charging during sunlight hours and nighttime operation. This concept enables virtually unlimited endurance for ocean survey purposes. However, the growth of marine life on the solar panel surface poses a specific challenge in this application.In order to overcome the aforementioned issue, ref. [35] develops an AUV that tows a surface boat equipped with solar panels and a fuel cell. This integrated system is designed for environmental monitoring and water quality assessment.A distinct type of AUV is the solar glider as pioneered by [36]. While also geared towards underwater observation, this AUV lacks conventional propulsion mechanisms. Instead, its motion is controlled through buoyancy and the presence of hydrodynamic wings. This unique design allows the solar glider, a relatively small vehicle, to be powered by solar energy during surface intervals.An ASV tows a sensor device in a different application discussed in [37]. This approach combines mechanical energy harvesting from sea waves and solar energy to power the control electronics and payload. Notably, this configuration offers advantages for acoustic sensors by mitigating interference from powertrain noise.Table 1 summarizes the key characteristics of the aforementioned autonomous solar-powered vehicles. The dimensions range from model sized to those typical of small boats, with a focus on achieving autonomy at modest speeds. Consequently, the power output of photovoltaic panels varies from a few watts to 1 kW. 3. Sporting BoatsSolar boat competitions started in Japan in 1989 [38] and have been a prominent feature in various countries, serving as practical educational experiences for college and high school students. These events [39], such as Solar Splash and California Solar Regatta in the USA, Desafio Solar in Brazil, Frisian Solar Challenge and Young Solar Challenge in the Netherlands, and Monaco Energy Boat Challenge, allow students to develop interdisciplinary skills and teamwork abilities [40,41,42]. Technical subjects are also taught during these activities as exemplified by [43], which focuses on the naval and mechanical engineering aspects of hull construction in solar boats. Moreover, the competitions offer students opportunities to develop non-technical capabilities like leadership, effective communication, conflict resolution, and teamwork, thus fostering their lifelong learning skills [44].In the present day, the World Cup Series in solar boats is organized by Solar Sport One. This series comprises a group of competitions that follow regulations periodically updated every five years. These regulations dictate the project specifications for building solar boats. Although limited archival papers exist on the design process, references to early projects can be found in papers such as those presented at the ASME Solar Energy conference, which were not digitally available until 2001. Nevertheless, the current regulations for each competition, along with numerous examples of specially developed boats, can be found online.Early solar boats from Marquette University are mentioned in [38], which participated in competitions in Japan and the USA during the 1990s. The development of the first model of Korean sporting solar boats in 2006 is described in [45], while [46] provides details on the design of two successful Turkish solar boats, focusing on hull shape and powertrain optimization in compliance with competition regulations.In [47], the key characteristics of boats competing in the Frisian Solar Challenge 2010 are listed, including the typology, dimensions, and solar–electric powertrain. The presence of monohulls, catamarans, and trimarans is highlighted across different classes, with optimal boat shapes determined by specific regulations that evolve over time to encourage the development of innovative multidisciplinary engineering solutions. The authors of [48] concentrate on the photovoltaic system of the boat they developed for the race, while [49] investigates the relationship between powertrain design parameters and propeller optimization. Additionally, ref. [50] summarizes insights from a hundred competitive solar boats, providing valuable suggestions for encapsulating PV cells for broader applications.In South America, the impact of the annual Brazilian university solar boat competition, Desafio Solar, on education and public engagement, is described in [51].The development of solar-powered hydrofoils for competitions began in 1994 at the Kanazawa Institute of Technology, as mentioned in [41]. However, detailed sources focusing on this popular architecture are scarce (for example, ref. [52] refers to a competition reserved for ASV in Japan). An example of solar boats derived from Frisian Solar Challenge competition boats is presented in [53], while the Netherlands stands out as a country with a significant number of sporting solar boats. The unique configuration of a partial trimaran is depicted in [54,55].Table 2 provides a summary of the main characteristics of solar boats described in the literature.In recent years, there has been an increase in the complexity and performance of competition-related projects; however, these developments have been inadequately documented in the scientific literature. As a result, valuable data, models, design criteria, and procedures are primarily available on temporary web pages, often belonging to teams or competition organizers. Unfortunately, this material is typically unreviewed, lacks uniformity, and is frequently presented in the teams’ native language.One notable exception is the work by [56], which provides a description of the AGH Polish boat from Krakow and offers insights into its behavior during a race.In the subsequent subsection, a summary of the key characteristics of the most advanced sporting solar boats is presented. This information is derived from the tech talks conducted by the teams in compliance with the regulations of the recent editions of the Monaco Energy Boat Challenge. The purpose of this summary is to provide an overview of the current state of the art in this field. Monaco Energy Boat ChallengeIn [57], a compilation of technical presentations from the competing teams in 2019, 2021, and 2022 is presented, featuring videos and slides. This article provides a summary of the most significant design data available for the solar class boats that were made accessible during the competition.In the solar class, the dimensions of the solar panel and battery are consistent among all participants, unless otherwise indicated, at 6 m
2
and 1500 Wh, respectively. Table 3 illustrates that a significant number of teams opted for hydrofoil boats due to race regulations.The hydrofoils employed are typically mechanically, hydraulically, or electrically activated. Despite the limited power output of the motors, typically around 6 kW, the top boats achieve impressive maximum speeds of approximately 50 km/h or 28 knots.Regarding the hull structure, the customary trade-off between lightweight construction and the cost is altered by a design and methodology that prioritize sustainability. Consequently, most boat designs incorporate a life cycle assessment phase and consider the calculation of the CO
2
footprint. This approach leads to the utilization of structural natural fibers [58], recycled carbon fiber [59], and a preference for out-of-autoclave processes, such as vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding [60].Figure 4 depicts two boats from different classes competing in the Monaco Energy Challenge. The boat on the left represents the Swiss solar class boat sailing on hydrofoils, while the boat on the right represents the University of Bologna energy class boat, which emerged as the winner in the 2021 and 2022 editions. In the energy class, solar panels are not obligatory but contribute a few hundred watts to the system. 4. Touristic BoatsWithin the scope of this section, the relevant literature predominantly covers the past decade, reflecting the recent surge of interest in solar-powered commercial boats, particularly for touristic purposes.One notable instance of a recreational boat suitable for lake environments was presented by [61] in 1990. The authors assert that a photovoltaic (PV) boat propulsion system with satisfactory performance can be designed within the low power range, primarily constrained by battery technology at that time. Hence, solar power is suitable for recreational and for-hire boats, commonly operational on weekends during summer. Such boats are utilized for activities like sport fishing or by authority personnel for short-distance, low-speed operations. Additionally, passenger boats and ferries in lakes can benefit from solar power, with supplementary charging while docked or through enhanced battery systems.In a comprehensive overview of the solar boat market in France conducted in 2013 by [62], the presence of similar applications in Swiss lakes is mentioned, dating back to 1994 with the boat Solifleur (see Figure 5). Unfortunately, there are no technical data available for this boat. However, it is known that it was still operational in 2013. An interesting detail is that the boat generated more energy than it consumed annually, feeding excess energy into the grid.In 2012, ref. [63] detailed the design of a solar–electric powertrain for a 14-m touristic catamaran, specifically engineered for continuous operation of 5 h per day. The authors contended that it takes ten years to recoup the project’s economic costs and six years to offset the energy consumption (and associated CO
2
emissions) involved in manufacturing the PV panels. These findings establish the economic and environmental sustainability of the project.In the work of [64], an overview is provided on notable commercial solar boats that have been constructed thus far. Additionally, an innovative concept involving the utilization of rigid sails to support solar panels in a 32 m boat is presented.A significantly different approach is proposed by [65] specifically tailored to the waters of Indonesia. In this case, the motor power and resulting speed are notably lower than in other instances.Detailed designs for a small and relatively affordable personal pleasure boat are described in [66] and more recently in [67].The development of a high-performance solar passenger catamaran intended for use in protected marine areas in Italy is outlined by [68]. The boat’s architecture is based on small waterplane area twin hulls (SWATH).Optimization of the PV powertrain for a leisure catamaran boat accommodating 42 passengers and operating in Taiwan is addressed in [69]. Mathematical algorithms are employed to enhance the performance of the system. The boat typically maintains a service speed of 9 km/h for approximately 5 h, which are customary values for such touristic applications.The design and construction of a touristic boat for use in the Indonesian sea, encompassing the hull, powertrain, mechanical systems, and propeller design, is detailed in [70,71,72,73]. The boat’s intended operation is to sail for four hours daily, traveling at approximately 10 km/h.A preliminary investigation into a solar catamaran hull measuring 5 m in length, intended for use in sport fishing or tourism in lakes, is conducted in [74,75]. The study concludes that a 2 kW motor is required to sustain an 8 km/h speed.In [76], the same idea is applied to a project in China, with the author considering the addition of an onshore solar power station and performing an economic analysis that demonstrates the economic viability of using photovoltaic energy over internal combustion engines.The utilization of mixed wind and solar energy for touristic purposes is explored in [77,78] through the implementation of rigid sails, with a primary focus on economic considerations.In [79], a small leisure boat is examined for use in Latvian rivers, with a prototype designed and tested to assess its capabilities.The energy management of a solar-powered touristic boat, designed in [80,81] and operating in the Galapagos Islands, is investigated in [82]. The authors analyze the boat’s energy sources, including its photovoltaic self-production and fossil fuel consumption from the grid.Recently, a traditional long-tail boat was repurposed as a solar-powered taxi boat as reported by [83,84].The economic evaluation of replacing diesel engines with hybrid or fully solar-powered solutions, both off grid and on grid, is conducted in [85]. The analysis focuses on a tourist boat operating in an artificial lake in Turkey. The authors present a comprehensive case study and determine that, even without accounting for the environmental benefits, the economic breakeven point is achieved in approximately ten years, compared to internal combustion engines.The paper also provides additional information on the characteristics of touristic boats for comparison purposes as summarized in Table 4. These solar-powered touristic boats exhibit various design features, with dimensions typically ranging from 4.5 m to 7 m for monohulls used privately and from 14 m to 32 m for public transport catamarans. Emphasis is placed on achieving autonomy at speeds between 6–15 km/h. Consequently, the power of photovoltaic panels employed varies from 3 W to 20 kW.Figure 6 showcases a representative example of a solar energy-powered touristic boat. 5. Other ApplicationsAlternative concepts for utilizing solar energy as the primary propulsion source are explored in filed patents. However, many of these concepts have not materialized into actual products, while others exhibit minimal innovation compared to existing technologies. This section discusses notable patented ideas and describes two iconic solar boats.The first mention of solar-powered boats as a possibility can be traced back to the patent by [86] in 1976. Subsequently, the French patent by [87] in 1980 explicitly claims the use of electric motors, solar panels, and accumulators for boats. Over the following years, various concepts emerged worldwide.For instance, in Japan in 1995, Ref. [88] proposed a small jet propulsion solar speedboat designed for a single passenger. More recently, China has seen a surge in patent applications. Some of these patents reflect applications discussed in previous sections, while others propose novel ideas. Ref. [89] asserts the benefits of a solar fishing boat, emphasizing its silent operations, which are also advantageous for tourist vessels [89,90]. Another patent [91] illustrates a civilian drone application closely resembling the military counterpart shown in Figure 3.The second group of patents encompasses scientific and conservationist applications [92] as well as two unmanned vehicles—one for advanced military purposes [93] and the other for aquaculture [94]. The Ocean University of Guandong [95] proposes a variable geometry speed boat, likely an autonomous surface vehicle (ASV). In Korea, ref. [96] advocates for the use of solar-powered boats to collect sea garbage, motivated by environmental concerns.India has also made recent contributions, ranging from a small boat [97] to a relatively large futuristic solar bus on hydrofoils [98]. A notable idea from Canada, presented by [99], demonstrates a portable solar electric watercraft that reaches a higher technology readiness level, indicating its proximity to the market.In the relatively recent past, several solar-powered vessels embarked on demonstrative cruises to showcase their capabilities. In 2007, the ”Transatlantic 21”, a 14-m catamaran designed by Loic Blanken and built by the German company Sun21, completed its journey across the Atlantic Ocean from Seville, Spain, to New York City in just over five weeks, covering a distance of approximately 7000 km [64,68,100].Three years later, the Tûranor, depicted in Figure 7, was launched on 31 March 2010 [101]. Named after the phrase “Power of the Sun” in J.R.R. Tolkien’s fictional Elvish language, this catamaran became the first solar-powered boat to circumnavigate the globe in 2012 [102]. It holds the distinction of being the world’s largest solar-powered boat, with a length of 31 m, width of 15 m, maximum speed of 26 km/h, cruise speed of 15 km/h, and a daily travel range of up to 350 km. The boat is equipped with 537 square meters of solar panels, generating a maximum power output of 93 kW, while each of its two motors has a power of 60 kW.With a crew capacity of four and the ability to accommodate up to 50 passengers, the Tûranor has been utilized for scientific expeditions, educational purposes, and the promotion of solar power [64,68,100]. 6. Conclusions and Future DirectionsIn the preceding sections, various solar-powered vehicles are discussed, some of which were also mentioned by Voerman (2010) in a brief analysis conducted in 2010.Figure 8 provides a comparison of different boat types based on the ratios between battery capacity, maximum motor power, and peak solar panel power. It is important to note that this representation is qualitative in nature, as boats do not typically operate at maximum power, and solar irradiation varies throughout the day.Nevertheless, the graph allows for the categorization of commercial boats into three main groups:Short-range solar boats: These boats primarily rely on solar energy for their regular operations, with motor power levels comparable to the solar energy input.Long-range solar boats: Similarly, the motors in these boats have power levels of the same order as the solar panels. However, the larger battery capacity enables continuous operations during nighttime or adverse weather conditions.Solar energy-assisted electric boats: This type of boat is characterized by significant battery and motor sizes, rendering the contribution of solar panels negligible.The figure also includes a typical sporting boat, which exhibits minimal autonomy due to its distinct objectives.In the case of the first two boat types, solar energy utilization is a crucial factor. Consequently, when designing these boats, considerations such as the size and shape of the vessel revolve around various factors, including the required surface area of the solar panel for the intended mission. Conversely, for the third boat type, the photovoltaic (PV) system’s size is optimized while considering other functional requirements. However, it typically does not significantly impact the overall naval architecture.The rationale behind the adoption of solar energy as a propulsion source for boats is summarized as follows:The need for long-lasting autonomy, spanning several hours, days, or even months.Low power density requirements to encourage students to find optimal hydrodynamic, structural, and electronic solutions for competition boats.Absence of local pollutant emissions to ensure compatibility with protected or naturalistic areas.Silent operations to minimize noise pollution.Independence from charging stations. However, the aforementioned low power density limits the suitability of PV energy for discontinuous, low-power-demanding applications.Solar-powered boats are typically employed in scenarios where the energy demand for the mission is relatively low. In the case of maritime drones, the itinerary is short, and speed is typically low, allowing for small electric motors with sufficient power to last the entire mission. Sporting boats, particularly hydrofoils, have limited mission durations of a few hours, enabling the use of relatively low-powered motors. Solar-powered commercial boats primarily operate in coastal trade, especially in tourism applications. These boats generally operate at low speeds and can be equipped with large-capacity batteries to support the mission, even with relatively powerful motors. The Tûranor, although unique, provides insights for special operation vessels.The possible development of solar-powered boats is predominantly influenced by environmental and social needs, emphasizing the pursuit of sustainability in marine transportation rather than rapid technological advancements because progress in this field is slow due to the maturity of most involved technologies.In the future, the energetic autonomy of solar-powered boats may be combined with autonomous navigation, leading to crewless vehicles in sectors beyond small drones driven by environmental and social imperatives. However, developing solar-powered boats is an area of ongoing innovation and research.Here are some possible challenges and advancements we may see in the near future:Improved solar panel efficiency: One area of focus is enhancing the efficiency of solar panels used on boats. Researchers and engineers are continually developing more efficient photovoltaic cells, which can generate greater amounts of electricity from sunlight. Higher efficiency solar panels would enable boats to generate more power, increasing their speed and range. A specific issue to be investigated is the durability of PV modules, particularly when exposed to marine environments.Energy storage technology: Advancements in energy storage technology, such as batteries, will play a crucial role in the future development of solar-powered boats. More efficient and lightweight batteries with higher energy density will allow boats to store larger amounts of solar-generated energy, extending their operational range and enabling them to operate during low-light conditions.Wind energy or hydrogen fuel cells: Besides solar energy, there is growing interest in combining solar power with other zero-emission technologies, such as wind energy or hydrogen fuel cell technology, for marine applications. Integrating solar panels with these systems could enhance the efficiency and range of solar-powered boats.Lightweight materials and design: Future advancements may focus on using lightweight materials and innovative boat designs to maximize energy efficiency. Lighter boat structures reduce energy requirements and allow for the better utilization of solar power. Advanced composite materials and hydrodynamic designs can decrease drag and increase overall performance.Smart energy management systems: Developing intelligent energy management systems will be crucial for optimizing the use of solar power on boats. These systems would dynamically allocate energy based on real-time conditions, such as solar irradiation, battery charge levels, and boat speed. Smart energy management can enhance overall efficiency and ensure optimal utilization of available solar energy.Integration of electric propulsion systems: Solar-powered boats can benefit from advancements in electric propulsion technology. More efficient electric motors and propulsion systems will increase speed and better maneuverability. Additionally, advancements in electric motor design can lead to quieter and smoother operation, enhancing the boating experience.These are just a few potential areas of development for solar-powered boats in the near future. As renewable energy technologies advance, we can expect continuous improvements in efficiency, range, and overall performance, making solar-powered boats even more viable and appealing as a sustainable mode of water transportation.
FundingFinanced by the European Union—NextGenerationEU (National Sustainable Mobility Center CN00000023, Italian Ministry of University and Research Decree n. 1033–17/06/2022, Spoke 11—Innovative Materials and Lightweighting). The opinions expressed are those of the authors only and should not be considered representative of the European Union or the European Commission’s official position. Neither the European Union nor the European Commission can be held responsible for them.Institutional Review Board StatementNot applicable.Informed Consent StatementNot applicable.Data Availability StatementNo new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.Conflicts of InterestThe author declares no conflict of interest.AbbreviationsThe following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
MDPIMultidisciplinary Digital Publishing InstituteASVAutonomous Surface VehicleAUVAutonomous Underwater VehiclePVPhoto VoltaicReferencesMinak, G.; Fragassa, C.; de Camargo, F. A Brief Review on Determinant Aspects in Energy Efficient Solar Car Design and Manufacturing; Campana, G., Howlett, R., Setchi, R., Cimatti, B., Eds.; Sustainable Design and Manufacturing 2017; SDM 2017; Smart Innovation,
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Figure 2.
Different typologies of the boats mentioned in the paper.
Figure 2.
Different typologies of the boats mentioned in the paper.
Figure 3.
Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Jeremy R. Boan, from the U.S. Naval Forces Central Command website, for public release.
Figure 3.
Photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Jeremy R. Boan, from the U.S. Naval Forces Central Command website, for public release.
Figure 4.
Solar and energy classes at Monaco Energy Challenge 2022. Photo courtesy of the UniboAT.
Figure 4.
Solar and energy classes at Monaco Energy Challenge 2022. Photo courtesy of the UniboAT.
Figure 5.
Solifleur, first passenger solar boat, built by Mark Wüst, MW-Line. Photo by Theo Schmidt CC BY 3.0.
Figure 5.
Solifleur, first passenger solar boat, built by Mark Wüst, MW-Line. Photo by Theo Schmidt CC BY 3.0.
Figure 6.
A typical solar tourist boat: the SunRider. Photo Sandith Thandasherry CC BY 4.0.
Figure 6.
A typical solar tourist boat: the SunRider. Photo Sandith Thandasherry CC BY 4.0.
Figure 7.
The Turanor solar boat. Photo Maxim Massalitin, CC BY 3.0.
Figure 7.
The Turanor solar boat. Photo Maxim Massalitin, CC BY 3.0.
Figure 8.
Summary of the boats’ nominal characteristics.
Figure 8.
Summary of the boats’ nominal characteristics.
Table 1.
Characteristics of the mentioned maritime drones.
Table 1.
Characteristics of the mentioned maritime drones.
ReferenceTypology and Name of the ASV/AUVDimension and WeightSolar Panel, Motor Power and Battery CapacityNotes
[20]Sailboat4.2 m25 WEquipped with a 5 m span rigid sail //// //2.0 kWh[22]Sailboat3.5 m60 WEquipped with flexible sails, solar panel flat on the deck, and Savonius wind generatorASAROME//// //7.7 kWh[23]Sailboat4.18 m50 WEquipped by rigid sail, and solar panel with sun tracking//1.05 m// 470 kg1.3 kWh[24,25]Monohull5.5 m1000 WMay form a fleet of long duration ASV platforms, but with a limited speed (3 km/h)//1.5 m// 1500 kg//[26]Monohull5.0 m1000 WSlow, but with 6 h autonomy. It can act like a buoyBuscamos-RobObs1.97 m1800 W 1000 kg10.8 kWh[27,28]Monohull4.8 m750 WHighly hydrodynamic hull, effective control, very precise navigationSeaTrac1.39 m500/1000 W 300 kg6.75 kWh[29]Monohull3.5 m315 WVery extended autonomy due to the combined use of wave energyAutonaut0.7 m// 180 kg840 Wh[30]Catamaran4.9 m300 WExtended autonomy up to 24 h, safety docking capabilities////// ////[31]Catamaran3.875 m300 WEquipped with a large solar panel. Sun tracking on one axis onlyMovarid2.33 m// 700/1700 kg8000 Wh[32]Paddle wheel boat0.86 m30 WSemi-autonomous, equipped with paddle wheels, extremely cheap//0.63 m// <39 kg84 Wh[33]Monohull1.0 m55 WExtremely small and cheap////// //84 Wh[34]AUV2.3 m120 WThe PV panels suffer from marine life growth while submerged.SAUV II1.1 m// 200 kg2 kWh[35]AUV/Boat1.6 m80 WThe PV panels are towed on a small surface vehicleSolar AEGIR0.6 m// 168 kg300 Wh[36]AUV Glider0.7 m1.5 WNo motors, only buoyancy control, extremely efficientSORA0.73 m5 W 3.5 kgCapacitor[37]AUV/Board2.0 m86 WPowered by sea wavesThe Wave Glider0.6 m// 75 kg665 Wh
Table 2.
Characteristics of the referenced sporting boats.
Table 2.
Characteristics of the referenced sporting boats.
ReferenceNameTypologyLength and WeightSolar Panel Power and Battery CapacityNotes[38]Sun WarriorMonohull6 m200–480 WOriginally it had no battery, hull from a sailing catamaran //1.0 kWh[38]Sun Warrior IIMonohull6 m40–480 WFiberglass/foam hull, flexible setup for different races //1.0 kWh[38]War Eagle IIMonohull6 m480 WCarbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) hull //1.0–1.5 kWh[45]EpisodeTrimaran5 m168 WDesing of the hull made by CFD 180 kg86 Wh[46]NusratMonohull5.5 m480 WMultiple configurations for different races, outboard motor 81 kg (hull)1.0–1.5 kWh[46]MuavenetMonohull5.2 m480 WMultiple configurations for different races, onboard motor 41.5 kg (hull)1.0–1.5 kWh[47,48,49]ScyllaMonohull6.04 m875 WStandard dislocating boat 162 kg1.0 kWh[54,55] Semi-Trimaran5.8 m1200 WHull made by optimized CFRP sandwich 300 kg3 kWh
Table 3.
Solar boats in the Monaco Energy Challenge 2019–2021–2022.
Table 3.
Solar boats in the Monaco Energy Challenge 2019–2021–2022.
Team, Name and NationTypologyLength and WeightMotor Power, Maximum Speed in Dislocation and FoilingNotesSunflare Solar TeamHydrofoil6 m6 kWMechanically oriented foils 91 kg35 km/hThe Netherlands 53 km/hUniversity of AntwerpMonohull6.2 m6.5 kW//Shark 100 kg27 km/hBelgium //BME Solar Boat TeamMonohull6.4 m15 kW// //18 km/hHungary //Han Solar BoatHydrofoil5.8 m//Mechanically oriented foils 100 kg//The Netherlands //Solar Boat TwenteHydrofoil6 m6 kWElectronically oriented foilsRising Trident 120 kg30 km/hThe Netherlands 50 km/hTecnico SolarHydrofoil//2 × 5 kWHydraulically oriented real foil, counter-rotating propellers ////Portugal //Durban UniversityTrimaran5.1 m4 kW//Siyamba 180 kg18 km/h South Africa // Adria RijekaTrimaran6.8 m8 kW//Toredo Navalis 79 kg35 km/hCroatia // Swiss Solar Boat DahuNon-symmetric Catamaran7 m//Counter-rotating propellers Dahu200 kg24 km/hSwitzerland 45 km/hAGH University of Science and TechnologyHydrofoil6 m2 × 4 kW// 110 kg// Poland // DB20Hydrofoil//10 kWV-20 class, passive Hydrofoils, 1800 W PV panel, 1700 Wh battery 200 kg//The Netherlands 35 km/h
Table 4.
Characteristics of the referenced touristic boats.
Table 4.
Characteristics of the referenced touristic boats.
ReferenceNameTypology and LengthMotor Power and SpeedSolar Panel Power and Battery CapacityNotes[61]KoronaMonohull2.2 kW900 WExperimental prototype based on a hull not specifically designed for the scope 7.2 m12 km/h12.6 kWh[63]//Catamaran 10 kWSolution for tourist navigation in areas where combustion engines are prohibited 14 m8–15 km/h90 kWh [64]Solar Shuttle BoatsCatamaran2 × 8–2 × 18 kW//Among the first public transportation commercial boats that depended completely on solar power 14–27 m12–15 km/h2 × 13.5–2 × 72 kWh [64]VolitanMonohull/sail150 kW10 kWConcept of hybrid, rigid sail–solar boat. It has never been built 32 m22–33 km/h//[65]//Monohull2 × 0.3 kW100 WMade to encourage the
local community to change perspective about solar energy 4.5 m2–6 km/h1.2 kWh[66]//Monohull2.7 kW1.4 kWSmall pleasure boat
basically designed for day and weekend trips 4.5 m7 km/h1.95 kWh[67]//Monohull500 W440 WLow-cost design for coastal navigation without wave and tidal issues 4.2 m5 km/h4.8 kWh[68]//SWATH2 × 20 kW12.6 kWZero-emission craft for Mediterranean coastal Marine Protected Areas 15 m14.5 km/h96 kWh[69]//Catamaran9 kW8 kWA leisure passenger catamaran operated in Taiwan with 42 person capacity 14.5 m9 km/h34.5 kWh[70,71,72,73]//Catamaran10 kW8 kWConcept of a medium size solar-powered recreational boat for tourism in Indonesia 12.6 m8–11 km/h38 kWh[76]//Catamaran2 × 7.5 kW3.6 kWConcept of a medium recreational boat for tourism in inland lakes in China 14 m9–12 km/h34 kWh[79]//Monohull500 W300 WPrototype of small personal leisure boat intended for Latvian rivers 5.5 m6 km/h600 Wh[80,81,82]Gènesis SolarCatamaran2 × 10 kW4.2 kWPublic transport trajects for tourist in the protected environment of the Galapagos Islands 15.4 m//26 kWh[83]E-tailMonohull7.8 kW1 kWPrototype of a traditional long-tail boat, used to transport tourists in Thailand 13 m8–10 km/h4 kWh[85]//Catamaran2 × 10 kW4 kWThis boat operates on a dam lake for tourist activities in Turkey 14 m6–10 km/h60–120 kWh[85]Aquawatt 550Monohull0.8–1.6 kW0.4–1.6 kWCommercial personal leisure boat for central European lakes 5.5 m6–10 km/h5 kWh[85]Aquawatt 715Monohull4 kW4.4 kWSolar-powered version of a long-time popular electric boat 7.15 m13.5 km/h17.5 kWh[85]SolarWaterWorld SunCat 46Catamaran6 kW4 kWCommercial traject boat for tourist, operating in Germany 14 m8–10 km/h46 kWh[85]Navalt AdityaCatamaran2 × 20kW20 kWCommercial large-size touristic ferry operating in India 20 m13.5 km/h50 kWh
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Solar Energy-Powered Boats: State of the Art and Perspectives. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1519.
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Solar Energy-Powered Boats: State of the Art and Perspectives. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2023; 11(8):1519.
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2023. "Solar Energy-Powered Boats: State of the Art and Perspectives" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 11, no. 8: 1519.
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Minak, G.
Solar Energy-Powered Boats: State of the Art and Perspectives. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1519.
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Minak G.
Solar Energy-Powered Boats: State of the Art and Perspectives. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2023; 11(8):1519.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11081519
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Minak, Giangiacomo.
2023. "Solar Energy-Powered Boats: State of the Art and Perspectives" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 11, no. 8: 1519.
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Commercial fishing - Nets, Boats, Gear | Britannica
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commercial fishing
Table of Contents
commercial fishing
Table of Contents
IntroductionHistory of commercial fishingFishery equipment and facilitiesGearHand toolsLinesTrapsNetsBag netsDragged netsSeinesDrive-in and lift netsGill and entangling netsMachinesVesselsTrawlersSide trawlersStern trawlersBeam or outrigger trawlersWet-fish trawlersFreezer trawlersFactory or processing trawlersSeinersPurse seinersSeine-nettersDredgersLift-nettersGill-nettersPottersLinersHandlinersLonglinersPole-and-line vesselsTrollersMultipurpose fishing boatsArtisanal fishing boatsMother shipsSupport and ancillary vesselsFreshwater fishing boatsHarbours and port marketsTypes of fisherySalt waterThe oceansObjects of sea fisheryFishesShellfishMammalsSeaweeds and planktonFish findingSea-fishing methodsPole-and-line fishingDrifting longlinesBottom longlinesTrapsDragged gearSeine netsPurse seines and lamparasLift netsGill nets and drift netsEntangling netsHarvesting machinesFresh waterGeneral characteristicsMethods
References & Edit History
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fishing industry summary
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Fishery equipment and facilities Gear An international classification of fishing methods includes 16 categories, depending upon the fishing gear and the manner in which the gear is used: (1) fishing without gear, (2) grappling and wounding gear, (3) stunning, (4) line fishing, (5) trapping, (6) trapping in the air, (7) fishing with bag nets, (8) dredging and trawling, (9) seining, (10) fishing with surrounding nets, (11) driving fish into nets, (12) fishing with lift nets, (13) fishing with falling gear, (14) gillnetting, (15) fishing with entangling nets, and (16) harvesting with machines. Hand tools The simplest and oldest form of fishing, collecting by hand, is still done today by both professionals and nonprofessionals along the shore during ebb tide in shallow water and in deeper water by divers with or without diving suits. Even when small tools such as knives or hoes are used, such collecting is classified as without gear. Diving to collect sponges, pearl oysters, or corals belongs under this classification, as does fishing with hunting animals. The Chinese still use trained otters, and the Japanese sometimes employ cormorants. To extend the reach of the human arm, long-handled tools were invented, such as spears, which can be thrust, thrown, or discharged, and clamps, tongs, and raking devices for shellfish harvesting. A special form is the harpoon, composed of a point and a stick joined together by a rope. Such grappling and wounding gear also includes spears, blowpipes, bows and arrows, and rifles and guns, which are used in fish shooting. The method called stunning may involve poisoning with toxic plants and special chemicals or mechanical stunning by explosions under water. The most modern practice in this field is to stun the fish by means of an electrical shock. Lines In line fishing the fish can be attracted by a natural or artificial bait or lure devised to catch and hold the fish. Generally, the bait is combined with a hook or with a gorge, as is used in France in line fishing for eels. There are handlines, as in pole-and-line fishing for tuna; setlines, such as bottom longlines with hundreds of hooks, used for cod or halibut; drift lines with a single hook and drifting longlines for tuna, shark, and salmon; and troll lines for mackerel and some game fish. Another method of fishing with hooks is done without bait, by raising and lowering arrays of hooks to gig (hook in the body) such large species as cod and sturgeon. Traps Genuine mechanical traps, which close by a mechanism released by the prey, are seldom employed for fishing. Most commercial fishing traps are chambers entered easily by the prey but from which escape is prevented by labyrinths or retarding devices, such as gorges or funnels. Fish traps can be simple hiding places, such as bushes or tubes, into which fish or shrimps swim for shelter but cannot escape later when the device is hauled in. The octopus pot used on the Italian coast and by the fishermen of South and East Asia is an example. Other types include small basketlike or cagelike traps made of wood, netting, wire, or plastic pots and fyke nets (long bag-shaped nets kept open by a series of hoops). Large pound nets, composed of net walls that guide fish through a series of baffles into a catching area, are used in the Mediterranean for tuna, off the western Baltic coast for eels, herring, and other species, and off both coasts of the northern Pacific for salmon. A special class are aerial traps for catching flying fish and shrimps. The fish are stirred up, then caught in the air with the help of special gear called veranda nets. South Sea islanders catch flying fish at night by attracting them with torches. Nets Bag nets Bag nets are kept vertically open by a frame and held horizontally stretched by the water current. There are small scoop nets that can be pushed and dragged and big stownets, with and without wings, held on stakes or on anchors with or without a vessel. There is also a special winged type with boards or metal plates (called otter boards) that keep it spread open. Stownets, larger than scoop nets and held in place against a current, are used in many rivers and by the Koreans for sea fishing in the strong current off the southwest coast of their country. In this case the stownet is anchored with a vessel. Dragged nets Dragged gear includes dredges, which are used mostly for shellfish and may be operated by hand in shallow waters or towed from large vessels. Another dragged net is the trawl, a large, cone-shaped bag of netting that is dragged along the seabed or towed in mid-water between the seabed and surface. Trawls are the most important fishing gear of the commercial fisheries of northwest Europe and are second only to purse seines in total catch of the world. Seines The seine net has very long wings and towing warps (tow lines), with or without bags for the catch. With purse seines, pelagic fish are surrounded not only from the side but also from underneath, preventing them from escaping by diving downward. Purse seines can be operated by a single boat, with or without auxiliary skiff, or by two vessels. Many sardinelike fishes—herring, tuna, mackerel, cod, and salmon—are commercially fished in this manner.
The basket boats of Vietnam
The basket boats of Vietnam
Skip to contentPartner Content for Honda Power ProductsENVIRONMENTNEWSCharting their own courseIn small villages along coastal Vietnam, basket boats were born out of financial necessity but have come to represent independence.In the early morning hours, fishermen begin their day by helping to drag a loaded basket boat through the surf and into the ocean.Photograph by Nhat Quang Le2:25The basket boats that dot the waters from the southern coast all the way up to Danang have become iconic to Vietnam. The origin of these coracles is unclear, but many believe they were born out of ingenuity during the French colonial era. As the story goes, when the French levied taxes on boats in Vietnam, fishermen couldn’t afford to pay them – so they designed circular woven “baskets” that just so happened to also function as boats. The basket boats quickly became popular up and down the coast thanks to both their tax-free status and their impressive engineering.A man transports traditional basket boats through Lagi village in Bin Thuan.Photograph by Nhat Quang LeMaking each basket boat (called “thung chai” or “thuyen thung”) was a meticulous process that required special skills. It took a specialized artisan several days to make a boat by hand. To start, he would gather young bamboo (used because bamboo is buoyant and flexible). After sun-drying the bamboo pieces, he would then whittle them down to an exact size before weaving them together by hand. Once the basket frame was done, the artisan would cover it with resin or tar. In some instances, he might use a layer of cow dung mixture along the bottom of the boat to fully waterproof it. For the final step, the boat is covered in a layer of sap from a local tree before being left out in the sun to dry.It takes a skilled artisan days to hand-make each basket boat.Photograph by Nhat Quang LeEach boat is hand-coated with a layer of resin in order to make it waterproof.Photograph by Nhat Quang LeGenerations of fishermen have been using basket boats thanks to their superior engineering. The round shape of the boats and their lightweight materials help them move naturally with the sea. While other boats cut through the water, basket boats stay above the waves and rarely overturn. This means fishermen can fish closer to shore in basket boats than in other vessels. Basket boats can be pushed straight into the ocean from the beach, whereas heavy long tail boats generally have to enter the water through a river.Learning how to maneuver a basket boat properly takes time. Unlike other boats, their round shape causes them to spin in circles. Traditionally, fishermen controlled the boats by waving an oar back and forth in an arc-like motion.Since basket boats are round, learning how to steer one with a wooden oar requires a unique set of skills.Photograph by Nhat Quang LeBasket boats are an important part of communities in coastal Vietnam. They operate as lifeboats during emergencies at sea. The boats frequently double as lightweight transportation for cargo or people. Basket boat races are popular components of local village festivals.While there are still traditional basket boat weavers, many fishermen have updated their vessels. Modern versions of basket boats use fiberglass, canvas and composite. Many have sails or engines to help them travel further offshore.Today, fishermen use a variety of vessels, from traditional bamboo basket boats to colorful, modernized versions.Photograph by Nhat Quang LeIn Lagi village in Bin Thuan, men and women work together to repair fishing nets by hand.Photograph by Nhat Quang LeMuch as they were back when they were created, basket boats today are a symbol of independence. Modern fishermen often have to work on large fishing vessels that take them away from their families for weeks at a time. Owning a basket boat allows them to operate independently and to make their own living. In many cases, thanks in part to basket boats, fishing has become a family business that will continue to be passed down through future generations.In communities across the world, people are reconnecting with their natural environments, seeking out ways they can live more sustainably. Read more about these stories here.You May Also LikeSCIENCEGoing with the flowENVIRONMENTGetting back to natureSCIENCEChanging the tidesTRAVELEat your way around the world with these 6 food travel booksTRAVEL4 remarkable wild stays in U.S. national parks, from a traditional log cabin to sky domesLegalTerms of UsePrivacy PolicyYour US State Privacy RightsChildren's Online Privacy PolicyInterest-Based AdsAbout Nielsen MeasurementDo Not Sell or Share My Personal InformationOur SitesNat Geo HomeAttend a Live EventBook a TripBuy MapsInspire Your KidsShop Nat GeoVisit the D.C. 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Solar-powered boats may soon float to the mainstream
Solar-powered boats may soon float to the mainstream
Skip to contentNewslettersSubscribeMenuExperts say that the aquatic applications of solar are evolving faster than ever. The benefits of clean energy and quiet hums of electric motors will be welcomed, especially in delicate ecosystems like Puerto Ayora in the Galápagos.
Photograph by Oliver Bolch, Anzenberger/ReduxTRAVELSolar is here to stay, but where are the boats?There's nothing novel about vehicles using alternatives to the internal combustion engine, but solar and battery-powered boats are rarely in the conversation.ByEthan GelberOctober 19, 2018•5 min readElectric vehicles are the talk of the town. Tesla has captured car drivers' imaginations, delivering the speeds, distances, and style they desire. Battery-powered buses are increasingly in vogue, too. Even major cities—New York being one of the latest—are shifting to all-electric fleets. And the Solar Impulse is making the case for the sun's might in aviation.But what about boats? Experts say that the aquatic applications of solar are evolving faster than ever and that innovations in marine transportation will soon swing into the mainstream for everything from small crafts to cruise ships.What held it back, though, were significant obstacles to adapting vessels for clean energy. Cracks in rigid and weighty solar panels and recurring damage to technology from the wet, wind, and salt of sea environments added to already high material costs.Finch Bay Hotel in the Galápagos obtained a new, fully electric transfer boat this year, Solar Ray, which is powered by four 370 W solar panels on the boat's rooftop.
Photograph courtesy Finch Bay HotelToday, however, foremost on the list of challenges is energy storage."It's an issue that the solar industry is facing in general," says James Manzer of ReVision Energy. "While we can make electricity really inexpensively today, storage is still catching up." It's important because of the inability to regulate the flow of electricity from solar panels, especially when shade or cloud cover reduces output, or when faced with the power draw of high speeds.RELATED: 44 Places to Stay If You Care About the Planet1 of 44Topas EcolodgeNorth of Hanoi, Vietnam, Topas Ecolodge organizes treks into Hoang Lien National Park, a global biodiversity hotspot.
Photograph Courtesy Topas Ecolodge"Electric motors in boats are heavily dependent on storing enough energy to propel that craft where it needs to go for as long as it needs to go," explains Manzer. Even then, higher speeds deplete batteries faster and battery recharge stations can't exactly be located in the middle of the ocean.Advancements will undoubtedly solve such problems, as they have most others. Materials are already getting hardier, like the flexible, lightweight, and durable solar panels used in the Kara Solar river transportation project for indigenous communities in the Ecuadorian Amazon. The project's pioneers have also applied their methods to the airport transfer boat of the Finch Bay Hotel in the Galápagos. And companies like Oceanvolt are attempting to do for watercraft what Tesla did for cars.There are also key improvements in both cost and supply. "We're seeing a 15 percent reduction in price every doubling of manufacturing output in the battery space," says Manzer.Of course, for solar advocates, the benefits of clean energy and the gentle purr of easy-to-manage electric motors always outweigh the costs. The oil and diesel alternatives are notoriously high-maintenance, extremely noisy and noxious, and very heavy polluters. Who wants the roar and stink of a diesel engine in the middle of the ocean or on the placid canals of France? For example, on the Amazon River, "the big benefit of it being quiet is that it makes hunting and fishing easier," says Oliver Utne, coordinator of Kara Solar.This is the news that's slowly breaking into the open, helped along by major initiatives like the round-the-world journey of the M.S. Tûranor PlanetSolar, the largest solar-powered boat, which mirrored the accomplishments of Solar Impulse in aviation, and Peace Boat's 2020 goal of launching a 6,000-passenger Ecoship, the world's greenest cruise ship, complete with massive, retractable "photovoltaic sails" and wind generators."It's happening," says Manzer. "The technology works. It will be exponential growth. It's just a matter of when, not if."Related TopicsSOLAR POWERBOATSTRAVELTRANSPORTATIONYou May Also LikeTRAVELVisiting Estonia? Here’s what the locals loveTRAVELHow to plan a weekend in Stavanger, where Norway's fjords collide with urban charmTRAVELWhere to stay in Sacramento, California's food-loving state capitalHISTORY & CULTUREThis small strait is essential to global shipping. 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Here's whyTravelNorth Queensland is the ultimate family destination. Here's whyLegalTerms of UsePrivacy PolicyYour US State Privacy RightsChildren's Online Privacy PolicyInterest-Based AdsAbout Nielsen MeasurementDo Not Sell or Share My Personal InformationOur SitesNat Geo HomeAttend a Live EventBook a TripBuy MapsInspire Your KidsShop Nat GeoVisit the D.C. MuseumWatch TVLearn About Our ImpactSupport Our MissionMastheadPress RoomAdvertise With UsJoin UsSubscribeCustomer ServiceRenew SubscriptionManage Your SubscriptionWork at Nat GeoSign Up for Our NewslettersContribute to Protect the PlanetFollow usNational Geographic InstagramNational Geographic FacebookNational Geographic TwitterNational Geographic YoutubeNational Geographic LinkedinNational Geographic TiktokNational Geographic RedditUnited States (Change)Copyright © 1996-2015 National Geographic SocietyCopyright © 2015-2024 National Geographic Partners, LLC. All rights reserved
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Buoyant Science: How Metal "Boats" Float | Scientific American
Buoyant Science: How Metal "Boats" Float | Scientific American
Skip to main contentScientific AmericanSign inApril 12, 20125 min readBuoyant Science: How Metal "Boats" FloatA watery wager from Science BuddiesBy Science BuddiesThe SciencesKey concepts
Hydrodynamics
Fluid dynamics
Physics
WaterIntroduction
Have you ever wondered why when you drop a steel nail into water it sinks like a stone, but when a well-built steel ship is in the ocean it floats, even though it weighs much more than a tiny nail?The answer has to do with the fact that when an object is placed in water, water is pushed out of the way. You may have noticed this when you take a bath in a bathtub. Known as Archimedes' principle, as water is pushed away by an object, the water exerts a force back on the object that is equal to the object's weight. This is what helps make an object float.On supporting science journalismIf you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.Background
More than 2,200 years ago, a scientist named Archimedes sat down in his bath and figured out that when an object is placed in water, water moves out of the way—it gets displaced. If the object is floating, the amount of water that gets displaced weighs the same as the object. There is a force, called a buoyant force, which pushes on an object when it displaces water. The strength of this upward acting force exerted by water is equal to the weight of the water that is displaced. So, if an object displaces just a little bit of water, the weight of that small amount of water is small, and so the buoyant force is small, too. If, on the other hand, the object displaces a lot of water, then there will be a large buoyant force pushing upward. Whether an object sinks or floats depends on its density and the amount of water it displaces to create a strong enough buoyant force. How dense can an aluminum "boat" be before it sinks?
Materials
• Cloth towel (or paper towels)
• Large, clear bowl or container
• Water
• Aluminum foil
• Metric ruler
• Pen
• Scissors
• Permanent marker
• Hammer or mallet
Preparation
• Spread out the towel or paper towels on a hard work surface. Fill the bowl or container about two thirds full of tap water and set it on the towel(s).
• Measure out a square of aluminum foil that is about 25 centimeters (cm) square. Cut out the square. This will become the metal "boat" you test.
• Mark the four corners of the aluminum foil square with permanent marker.
• Be careful: later in the experiment you will use the hammer. Be sure to pound on a surface that can safely withstand the force and is resistant to damage.
Procedure
• Pull the corners of the aluminum foil square together and crumple the square into a loose ball that is approximately six cm in diameter. Rumple the aluminum such that the marked corners stay together and are visible in one spot.
• Set the ball gently in the bowl of water, placing it so that the marked corners are at the top of the ball, as this will help prevent the ball from filling up with water. Immediately observe the ball. Does it sink or float?
• Get down low so that you are at eye level with the aluminum foil ball and quickly observe how much of the ball is below the surface of the water. Is about 10 percent, 25 percent, 33 percent, 50 percent, 67 percent, 75 percent, 90 percent or 100 percent of the ball underwater?
• Remove the ball from the bowl, shake out any water and dry it on the towel.
• Now crumple the ball a little more tightly, into one that is approximately five cm in diameter. If you crumple it too much, just carefully pull apart some of the aluminum foil to get the desired size.
• Again, set the ball gently in the water, placing the marked corners at the top. Does it sink or float? What percentage of the ball is below the top of the water? Remove it, shake out any water and dry it.
• Continue to crumple the ball to be smaller and tighter, and test whether it floats or not (as you have been doing) as it gets smaller. Keep testing smaller diameters until the ball completely sinks. Try testing these diameters (or ones roughly similar): 4.0 cm, 3.0 cm, 2.5 cm, 2.2 cm, 2.0 cm, 1.8 cm, 1.6 cm. If it is too hard to squeeze the ball smaller by hand strength alone, then carefully use the hammer or mallet to gently pound the foil into a smaller ball (or as close to a ball-shape as you can make it). For each diameter you test, what percentage of the ball is submerged?
• At which diameter did the ball sink to the bottom? Do you think that the ball that sank had the lowest or highest density? At which diameter did the ball have a density that was approximately equal to that of water? (When was the ball almost completely submerged or fully submerged but not quite sinking to the bottom?)
• Extra: Cut out at least two additional aluminum foil sheets that are 25 cm square and repeat this activity. Do you get the same results with all the aluminum squares you test, or is there a lot of variation?
• Extra: You can do this activity again, but this time weigh the aluminum sheet on a scale and calculate its mass in grams. Calculate the volume of the spheres for each diameter, using the fact that the volume of a sphere is equal to four thirds times pi (3.14) times the radius cubed. Using the mass and the volumes, compute the average density of the aluminum sheet for each diameter by dividing mass by volume. At what density did the aluminum ball sink? At what density was the aluminum ball approximately equal to that of water? For each diameter of the sphere, what is the mass of the water that was displaced? For more accurate results, continue testing additional 25-cm aluminum squares.Observations and results
Did more and more of the ball end up below the top of the water as the ball's diameter decreased? Was about half of the ball below the water when the ball had a diameter of about 2.5 cm, and did the entire ball sink when its diameter was about 1.6 cm or smaller?If an object is floating in water, the amount of water that gets displaced weighs the same as the object. Consequently, while it was floating, the ball should have displaced the same amount of water as it decreased in diameter, and so the buoyant force should have remained the same. However, the density of the ball was changing—it increased as the ball's diameter decreased.Density is the mass per unit volume—it describes how much "stuff" is packed into a volume of space. When the aluminum ball had a diameter of 6.0 cm, the ball should have floated well because it had a density lower than that of water due to the air inside of the ball, just like steel ships that can float because their density has been lowered by encasing air inside the hull. And as long as the ship displaces enough water to create a strong buoyant force, it can stay afloat—even if it is loaded with cargo. As the diameter decreased and density increased, the ball should have sank more and more. When its diameter was about 1.8 cm or 1.6 cm, you may have seen it become 90 percent (just barely) submerged. This is when the ball had a density approximately equal to that of water. With a diameter of about 1.6 cm or smaller, the ball should have completely sank, indicating that its density was greater than that of water, thereby overcoming the buoyant force.Cleanup
Pour the water down a drain and recycle the aluminum foil.More to explore
Archimedes' Principle from Hila Science Videos
How Stuff Works
Archimedes' Principle by ORACLE ThinkQuest: Education Foundation
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This activity brought to you in partnership with Science BuddiesRights & PermissionsMore by Science BuddiesExpand Your World with ScienceLearn and share the most exciting discoveries, innovations and ideas shaping our world today.SubscribeSign up for our newslettersSee the latest storiesRead the latest issueFollow Us:Return & Refund PolicyAboutPress RoomFAQsContact UsInternational EditionsAdvertiseSA Custom MediaTerms of UsePrivacy PolicyCalifornia Consumer Privacy StatementUse of cookies/Do not sell my dataScientific American is part of Springer Nature, which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications (many of them can be found at www.springernature.com/us). Scientific American maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers.© 2024 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, A DIVISION OF SPRINGER NATURE AMERICA, INC.ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
List of boats, ships, and submarines | Sailing Vessels, Naval Vessels & Submersibles | Britannica
List of boats, ships, and submarines | Sailing Vessels, Naval Vessels & Submersibles | Britannica
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list of boats, ships, and submarines
Table of Contents
list of boats, ships, and submarines
Table of Contents
Introductionnotable vesselstypes of vesselsmall boatsnaval shipssailing shipsshipping and transport vesselssubmarinesotherstructural features and equipmentstructural featuresnautical devices
References & Edit History
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A ship is any large floating vessel capable of crossing open waters, as opposed to a boat, which is generally a smaller craft. A submarine is any naval vessel that is capable of propelling itself beneath the water as well as on the water’s surface. This is an alphabetically ordered list of notable boats, ships, and submarines followed by alphabetically ordered lists of types of vessel and structural features and equipment. (See also harbours and sea works; maritime law; piracy; ship construction.)
notable vessels
Achille LauroAndrea DoriaArgonaut (early submarine)ArgusBeagleBismarck Bounty BritannicCarpathiaCharlotte DundasClermontConstitutionCutty SarkDreadnoughtEastlandEnterpriseFlying Dutchman (legendary)FultonGlomar ChallengerGraf SpeeGreat BritainGreat EasternGreat RepublicGreat WesternHolland (submarine) Hunley (submarine)Kon-Tiki LeninLong BeachLusitaniaMauretaniaMayflowerMissouriNautilus (submarine)OlympicQueen ElizabethRaSanta MaríaSavannahScharnhorstSiriusSkate (submarine)Thresher (submarine)TitanicTriton (submarine)Turtle (submarine)VictoryWilhelm Gustloff
types of vessel
small boats
air-cushion machinecanoe (See also canoeing.)dugoutpiroguecoracledinghygondolalightermotorboatraftrowboat (See also rowing.)umiaksampan
naval ships
aircraft carrierbattleshipcorvettecruiserdestroyerfrigategalleonironcladlanding ship, tank (LST)minesweepermonitorship of the linetrireme (See also naval warfare; ship-of-the-line warfare.)
sailing ships
barkbarkentinebrigbrigantinecaravelcatamarantrimaranclipper shipcutterdinghyfrigategalleonManila galleonjunklongshipprauschoonersloop
shipping and transport vessels
container shipfactory shipgalleonManila galleonmerchant marineocean linertramp steamertankertugboat
submarines
bathyscaphebathyspherediving bellmesoscapheU-boat(See also undersea exploration.)
other
dinghydoryshowboatwhaleboatwhale catcher
structural features and equipment
structural features
anchorcastlefigureheadfin stabilizerhydrofoilkeelpaddle wheelriggingmastsailfore-and-aft saillateen sailsquare sailship’s bell
nautical devices
chronometerdepth findergyroscopesextant
This article was most recently revised and updated by Richard Pallardy.
Why Has a Group of Orcas Suddenly Started Attacking Boats? | Scientific American
Why Has a Group of Orcas Suddenly Started Attacking Boats? | Scientific American
Skip to main contentScientific AmericanSign inMay 24, 20234 min readWhy Has a Group of Orcas Suddenly Started Attacking Boats?Killer whales in a group near Spain and Portugal may be teaching one another to mess with small boats. They sank their third vessel earlier this monthBy Stephanie PappasA group of three orcas, also known as killer whales, are seen swimming in the Strait of Gibraltar. Individuals in the critically endangered subpopulation have been attacking boats off the coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Credit: Malcolm Schuyl/Alamy Stock PhotoAnimalsA trio of orcas attacked a boat in the Strait of Gibraltar earlier this month, damaging it so badly that it sank soon afterward.The May 4 incident was the third time killer whales (Orcinus orca) have sunk a vessel off the coasts of Portugal and Spain in the past three years. The subpopulation of orcas in this region began harassing boats, most often by biting at their rudder, in 2020. Almost 20 percent of these attacks caused enough damage to disable the vessels, says Alfredo López, an orca researcher at the Atlantic Orca Working Group (GTOA), which monitors the Iberian killer whale population. “It is a rare behavior that has only been detected in this part of the world,” he says.Researchers aren’t sure why the orcas are going after the watercraft. There are two hypotheses, according to López. One is that the killer whales have invented a new fad, something that subpopulations of these members of the dolphin family are known to do. Much as in humans, orca fads are often spearheaded by juveniles, López says. Alternatively, the attacks may be a response to a bad past experience involving a boat.On supporting science journalismIf you're enjoying this article, consider supporting our award-winning journalism by subscribing. By purchasing a subscription you are helping to ensure the future of impactful stories about the discoveries and ideas shaping our world today.The first known incident occurred in May 2020 in the Strait of Gibraltar, an area with heavy boat traffic. Since then GTOA has recorded 505 cases of orcas reacting to boats. Sometimes they simply approached the vessels, and only a fraction of cases involved physical contact, López says. In a study published in June 2022 in Marine Mammal Science, he and his colleagues cataloged 49 instances of orca-boat contact in 2020 alone. The vast majority of the attacks were on sailboats or catamarans, with a handful involving fishing boats and motorboats. The average length of the vessels was 12 meters (39 feet). For comparison, a full-grown orca can be 9.2 meters (30 feet) long.The researchers found that the orcas preferentially attack the boats’ rudder, sometimes scraping the hull with their teeth. Such attacks often snap the rudder, leaving the boat unable to navigate. In three cases, the animals damaged a boat so badly that it sank: In July 2022 they sank a sailboat with five people onboard. In November 2022 they caused a sailboat carrying four to go down. And finally, in this month’s attack, the Swiss sailing yacht Champagne had to be abandoned, and the vessel sank while it was towed to shore. In all cases, the people onboard were rescued safely.In 2020 researchers observed nine different individual killer whales attacking boats; it’s unclear if others have since joined in. The attacks tended to come from two separate groups: a trio of juveniles occasionally joined by a fourth and a mixed-aged group consisting of an adult female named White Gladis, two of her young offspring and two of her sisters. Because White Gladis was the only adult involved in the initial incidents, the researchers speculate that she may have become entangled in a fishing line at some point, giving her a bad association with boats. Other adult orcas in the region have injuries consistent with boat collisions or entanglement, López says. “All this has to make us reflect on the fact that human activities, even in an indirect way, are at the origin of this behavior,” he says.The safe rescue of everyone involved, however, suggests to Deborah Giles that these orcas don’t have malevolent motivations against humans. Giles, science and research director of the Washington State–based nonprofit conservation organization Wild Orca, points out that humans relentlessly harassed killer whales off the coasts of Washington and Oregon in the 1960s and 1970s, capturing young orcas and taking them away for display at marine parks. “These are animals that, every single one of them, had been captured at one point or another—most whales multiple times. And these are whales that saw their babies being taken away from them and put on trucks and driven away, never to be seen again,” Giles says. “And yet these whales never attacked boats, never attacked humans.”Though it’s possible that the orcas around the Iberian Peninsula could be reacting to a bad experience with a boat, Giles says, it’s pure speculation to attribute that motivation to the animals. The behavior does seem to be learned, she says, but could simply be a fad without much rhyme or reason—to the human mind, anyway. Famously, some members of the Southern Resident orcas that cruise Washington’s Puget Sound each summer and fall spent the summer of 1987 wearing dead salmon on their head. There was no apparent reason for salmon hats to come in vogue in orca circles, but the behavior spread and persisted for a few months before disappearing again. “We’re not going to know what’s happening with this population,” Giles says, referring to the Iberian orcas.The Iberian orca attacks typically last less than 30 minutes, but they can sometimes go on for up to two hours, according to the 2022 study. In the case of the Champagne, two juvenile killer whales went after the rudder while an adult repeatedly rammed the boat, crew members told the German magazine Yacht. The attack lasted 90 minutes.The Iberian orca subpopulation is considered critically endangered, with only 39 animals the last time a full census was conducted in 2011. A 2014 study found that this subpopulation follows the migration of their key prey, Atlantic bluefin tuna—a route that puts them in close contact with human fishing, military activities and recreational boating. Maritime authorities recommend that boaters in the area slow down and try to stay away from orcas, López says, but there is no guaranteed way to avoid the animals. He and his colleagues fear the boat attacks will come back and bite the orcas, either because boaters will lash out or because the attacks are dangerous to the animals themselves. “They run a great risk of getting hurt,” López says.Rights & PermissionsStephanie Pappas is a freelance science journalist. She is based in Denver, Colo.More by Stephanie PappasExpand Your World with ScienceLearn and share the most exciting discoveries, innovations and ideas shaping our world today.SubscribeSign up for our newslettersSee the latest storiesRead the latest issueFollow Us:Return & Refund PolicyAboutPress RoomFAQsContact UsInternational EditionsAdvertiseSA Custom MediaTerms of UsePrivacy PolicyCalifornia Consumer Privacy StatementUse of cookies/Do not sell my dataScientific American is part of Springer Nature, which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications (many of them can be found at www.springernature.com/us). Scientific American maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers.© 2024 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, A DIVISION OF SPRINGER NATURE AMERICA, INC.ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
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